INTRODUCTION

 The word environment is derived from the French word „environner‟ which
means to „encircle or surround‟.
 Thus our environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical
conditions that surround, affect and influence the survival, growth and
development of people, animals and plants”
 The scope of environmental studies is very wide and it deals with many areas
like i) Conservation of natural resources, ii) ecological aspects, iii)
pollution of the surrounding natural resources, iv) controlling the pollution, v)
social issues connected to it, and vi) impacts of human population on the
environment.

SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT: Environment consists of four segments.

1. Atmosphere: Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.

2. Hydrosphere: Various water bodies present on the earth.

3. Lithosphere: Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.

4. Biosphere: Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the
environment.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES:

 The environment studies make us aware about the importance of protection and
conservation of our mother earth and about the destruction due to the release of
pollution into the environment.
 The increase in human and animal population, industries and other issues make
the survival cumbersome.
 A great number of environment issues have grown in size and make the system
more complex day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth.
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues are being of Global:
It has been well recognised that environment issues like global warming and
ozone depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national
issues but are global issues and hence require international efforts and cooperation to
solve them.
2. Development and Environment:
Development leads to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Telecommunication
and Transportation Systems, Hi-tech Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has
become phased out in the developed world. The North intentionally moves their dirty
factories to South to cleanse their own environment. When the West developed, it did
so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Development of
the rich countries of the world has undesirable effects on the environment of the entire
world.

3. Explosive Increase in Pollution

World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planet lives
in India. Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of
its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land.
Agricultural experts have recognized soil health problems like deficiency of
micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for an Alternative Solution
It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an
alternative goal. We need a goal as under:
1. A true goal of development with an environmentally sound and sustainable
development.
2. A goal common to all citizens of our planet earth.
3. A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-
consuming wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
It is utmost important for us to save the humanity from extinction because of our
activities constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of
development.
5. Need for Wise Planning of Development
Our survival and sustenance depend on resources availability. Hence Resources
withdraw, processing and use of the products have all to be synchronised with the
ecological cycle. In any plan of development our actions should be planned
ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.
6. Misra (1991) recognized four basic principles of ecology, as under:
(i) Holism, (ii) Ecosystem, (iii) Succession and (iv) Conversation.
Holism has been considered as the real base of ecology. In hierarchical levels at which
interacting units of ecology are discussed, are as under:
Misra (1991) has recognised four basic requirements of environmental management as
under:
1. Impact of human activities on the environment,
2. Value system,
 3. Plan and design for sustainable development,
4. Environment education.
Keeping in view of the goal of planning for environmentally sustainable
development, India contributed to the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), also referred to as “Earth Summit” held at Rio de Janeiro,
the Capital of Brazil, 3rd-14th June, 1992.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1. Growing Population:
 A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent
every year.
 Over 17 million people are added each year.
 It puts considerable pressure on its natural resources and reduces the
gains of development.
 Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the population growth.
Although population control does automatically lead to development,
yet the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates.
2. Poverty:
 India has often been described a rich land with poor people.
 The poverty and environmental degradation are mixed with one another.
 The vast majority of our people are directly dependent on the nature
resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter and
fodder.
 About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line.
3. Environment degradation:
 It has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources of
their immediate surroundings.
 Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge of environment
degradation are two facets of the same challenge.
4. Agricultural Growth:
 The people must be made familiar with the methods to sustain and
increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment.
 High yielding varieties have caused soil salinity and damage to physical
structure of soil.
5. Need to Increase Ground water:
 It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater.
 Factors like community wastes, industrial effluents, chemical fertilizers
and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected quality of
the groundwater.
 It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other water
bodies.
  Suitable strategies for conservation of water, provision of safe drinking
water and keeping water bodies clean should be developed.
6. Development and Forests:
 Forests serve catchments for the rivers.
 With increasing demand of water, plan to harness the mighty river
through large irrigation projects were made.
 Certainly, these would submerge forests; displace local people, damage
flora and fauna.
 As such, the dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have
become areas of political and scientific debate.
 Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to
pressures of agriculture and other uses.
 Vast areas that were once green, stand today as waste lands.
 These areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover.
 The tribal communities inhabiting forests, respects the trees, birds and
animals give them sustenance.
 We must recognize the role of these people in restoring and
conservingforests.
 The modern knowledge and skills of the forest department should be
integrated with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local
communities.
 The strategies for the joint management of forests should be evolved in a
well-planned way.
7. Degradation of Land:
 At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha possess any
potential for production.
 Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly and 85 suffers from varying
degrees of soil degradation.
 Of the remaining 123 mha 40 are completely unproductive.
 The remaining 83 mha is classified as forest land, of which over half is
denuded to various degrees.
 Nearly 406 million head of livestock have to be supported on 13 mha, or
less than 4 per cent of the land classified as pasture land, most of which
is overgrazed.
 Thus, out of 226 mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to
varying degrees.
 Water and wind erosion causes further degradation of almost 150 mha
This degradation is to be avoided.
8. Evil Consequences of Urbanization:
 Nearly 27% of Indians live in urban areas.
 Urbanization and industrialization has given birth to a great number of
environmental problems.
 Over 30 percent of urban Indians live in slums.
 Out of India‟s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full
sewerage and treatment facilities.
  Hence, coping with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.
9. Air and water Pollution:
 Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and pollution
causing technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of
treating their wastes.
 A great number of cities and industrial areas have been identified as the
worst in terms of air and water pollution.
 Acts are enforced in the country, but their implement is not so easy.
 The reason is their implementation needs great resources, technical
expertise, political and social will.
 Again the peopleare to be made aware of these rules.
 Their support is indispensable to implement these rules.

ECOLOGY:
 The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
 The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos
(eco) – means “house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of
(or) the study of. Hence, ecology is the branch of science that deals with the
study of the pattern of relations between the organism and their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms
with their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
ECO SYSTEM:
 In 1935, the British ecologist [Link] coined the term “eco system”.
 The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means
ecological sphere (or) house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or)
Environment, where living organism does exist while “system” means “group
of organisms joined in regular and interdependent manner.
 Hence, A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with
environment is known as ecosystem.
(OR)
 A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e.,
environment) is called as “ecosystem”.
 Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc., are some of the
examples of the ecosystems.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM
  Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.
 It contains both biotic and abiotic components. Environmental Science
 The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and
flow of energy.
 The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its
structure.
 Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is
called as “ecological succession”.

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:
 The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem 2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
 A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
 These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.
 The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
A. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
B. Aquatic Ecosystem.
A) Terrestrial Ecosystem: This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem. Forest ecosystem and Desert ecosystem etc.
B) Aquatic Ecosystem: This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub
divided into two types based on salt content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow
rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem: Examples: Seas and Sea shores (land along the edges of
sea)
2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:
An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc
STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an
ecosystem explains the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic
(living) components.
Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components.
2. Abiotic (Non-living) components
1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic
component”.
Examples: Plants (Producers); Animals (Consumers) and Micro Organisms
(Decomposers).
The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on
how they get their food.
A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants
B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.
A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)
 Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs.
 Examples: All green plants and trees.
 Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence,
they are also called “Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)
B. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:
 Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend
directly (or) indirectly on the producers.
Examples:
 Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
 Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
 Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)
i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
 They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant
eaters.
  Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.
 They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.
 Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.
iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food.
 Examples: Humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.

iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)

 Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores.
Examples: beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.
C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)
 The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple
products are called decomposers(or) reducers.
 Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
 Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and
decompose them into simple compounds.
 During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
2. Abiotic Components:
 The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”
 These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in
metabolic activities and then return to the environment.
 The abiotic component of the ecosystems divided into three portions.
1. Climate factors: Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current, rainfall,
etc.
2. Physical factors: light, fire,soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors: Organic and Inorganic substances.
FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and
flow of energy.
Types of functions: Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves through
photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
 Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their own
food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This is called
secondary function of eco system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and
producers and decompose them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition
inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem are:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.
A. FOOD CHAIN:
 Anything which we eat to live is called food.
 Food contains energy.
 Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
 The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of
organisms is called as “food chain”.
 A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life.
 Thus, a food chain is a picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from
autotrophs (producers) to series of organisms in an environment, as shown in
the following figure.

Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles

B. FOOD WEB:
 Food web is a network of food chains.
 In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of
organisms are connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of
options of eating and being eaten at each tropic level.
  Thus, there is a inter connecting of various food chains are called food webs
and as shown in following figure.

C. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
 The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist
CharlesElton in 1927.
 Graphical representation of ecological parameters presents in various trophic
levels of a food chain with producer at the base and top carnivores the tip.

 On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy
flow. Three types of ecological pyramids are: 1. Pyramid of numbers. 2.
Pyramid of biomass 3. Pyramid of energy.
1. Pyramid of numbers:
 It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level (the
position of an organism in the food chain).
 It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
2. Pyramid of Biomass:
 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological
material (or) organism) present in each tropic level.
  It is expressed in gram per unit area.

3. Pyramid of Energy:
 It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in calories per unit area per year
D. ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
 The flow of energy that occurs along a food chain is called Energy flow.
 The plants convert solar energy into chemical energy through the process of
Photosynthesis.
 This chemical energy is passed from one trophic level to the next trophic
level (a level or a position of organisms in a food chain, a food web, or an
ecological pyramid) along a food chain in the form of Biomass (Dry weight
of all organic matter contained in its organism).
 With each transfer some usable energy is degraded and lost to the
environment as Heat.
 Thus, only a small portion of food digested is converted into an organism
bodily material or biomass (Cell tissues).
 The % of usable energy transferred as biomass from one trophic level to the
next is called Ecological Efficiency.
 It ranges from 5% to 20% (loss of 80 -95%) depending on the types of
species and the ecosystem.
 Assuming 10% EE (90% loss) at each trophic transfer.
 If green plants to capture 10,000 units of energy from the sun, then only
about 1,000 units of energy will be available to herbivores and only about
100 units to carnivores.
Energy flow follows the two laws of thermodynamics.
(i) First Law of Thermodynamics
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be transferred from
one system to another as from one form to another form.
 Here, the source of energy, i.e., solar energy captured by green plants gets
converted into biochemical energy of plants and it into that of consumers.
(ii) Second Law of Thermodynamics
 During the transformation, a portion of the energy is dissipated into the
surroundings as heat energy.
 It occurs when energy is transferred between trophic level.
 When the light energy spill on the green surfaces of plants, a part of it is
converted into chemical energy, which is kept in various organic products
in the green plants.
 When the herbivores eat plants as food and transform energy into chemical
energy accumulated in plant products into kinetic energy, degradation of
energy will occur through its conversion into hotness.

SUN Radiant

Energy Transfer

Producers (Photosynthesis)
(Plants)

HEAT

HEAT

Herbivores HEAT
(Primary Consumers)

DECOMPOSERS
HEAT

Carnivores
(Secondary Consumers)
HEAT
HEAT
HEAT

Top Carnivores
(Tertiary Consumers)

 When herbivores are eaten up by carnivores (secondary consumers), further

degradation will occur.
 Similarly, when top carnivores feed primary carnivores, again energy will
be degraded.
  The energy flow is unidirectional along the food chain, with the head of an
arrow showing the direction of energy flow; energy is lost as heat at each step
along the way.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
 The change of plant and animal communities in an orderly sequence in an
area, resulting in establishment of stable or climax community is called
Ecological Succession.
 The phenomenon of transition from one biotic community to another is
called ecological or natural succession.
 Succession occurs because the physical environment may be gradually
modified by the growth of the biotic community.
 The first community which inhabit a bare area is called Pioneer
community. The last and stable community in the area is called Climax
community.
 The intermediate between pioneer and climax communities are called Seral
or transitional communities.
 The entire series of communities of biotic succession from pioneer to
climax community is called as Sere.
Ecological successions starting on different types of areas or substrates are named
differently as follows;
(i) Starting in watery area like pond, swamp, bog, etc., is called Hydrarch
and the whole sequence of developmental stages is called Hydrosere.
(ii) Starting in dry area is called Xerarch and the different developmental
stages are called Xerosere.
The Xerosere is of three types:
(a) Lithosere - Beginning on a bare rock.
(b) Psammosere - Starting on sand area.
(c) Halosere - Starting on saline soil.
Types of Ecological Succession:
(i) Primary Succession: Succession that begins in areas where no soil is
initially present is called primary succession. It takes a very long time to
reach the climax stage.
(ii) Secondary Succession: Succession that begins in areas where soil is
already present is called secondary succession. It takes much less time to
reach the climax stage.
Clement's theory of succession/Mechanisms of succession:
The whole process of succession is completed through a number of
sequential steps which follow one another.
(i) Nudation: It is the development of a bare area. It is due to
landslide, erosion, deposition of soil particles, clearing of forests,
overgrazing.
(ii) Migration (Dispersal): The seeds or spores reach the bare area.
This process is called Migration. It is brought about by air,
water, animals and man. The first arrivals in a bare area are called
Pioneers or Pioneer colonisers.
(iii) Ecesis (Establishment): After migration seeds germinate,
seedling grows and adults start to reproduce. As a result of
Ecesis, the individual species become established in the area.
(iv) Aggregation: After Ecesis, the increase in the number of
colonising individuals is called Aggregation.
(v) Invasion: New species are able to establish in the new area, the
process is called Invasion and the new organisms are called
Invaders.
(vi) Competition and Co-action: After aggregation of a large
number of the species at the limited place, there develops
Competition mainly for space and nutrition. Individuals of a
species affect each other‟s life in various ways. This is called Co-
action.
(vii) Reaction: It is the change brought about by colonisers in the
habitats. The changes take place in soil, water, light conditions,
temperature of the environment. Due to these, the environment is
modified. This is known as Reaction. The modified environment
is unsuitable for existing community which is replaced by another
community.
The whole sequence of community that replaces one another in
the given area is called Sere. The various communities
constituting the sere, as seral communities, seral stages or
developmental stages.
 (viii) Stabilisation (Climax): The stage at which the final or climax
community becomes more or less stabilised for a longer time in
that particular environment is known as stabilisation.
SUCCESSION ON BARE ROCK (XERARCH)
This type of succession that occur on bare rock.
The bare rock is deficient of water, hence the sequence of seral stages is called
Xerosere.
Ecological succession in xeric (dry) habitats, such as bare rock, wind-blown sand,
rocky slopes, etc., where there is an extreme scarcity of water, is termed xerarch
succession and its different stages of development constitute xerosere.
Xerosere on bare rock surface is called lithosere or litharch succession.
The following stages that occur in lithosphere are as follows:
1. Crustose lichen stage: The lichen are the pioneer community. The substratum
is very poor in moisture and organic matter, subjected with extreme of
temperature. Examples: Rhizocarpon, Rinodina etc.
2. Foliose lichens stage: They can absorb more water and retain more water and
are able to accumulate dust particle which further help in build up of
substratum. Examples: Parmelia, Dermatocapron.
3. Moss stage : Xerophytic mosses such as Tortula, Grimmia appears after
lichens stage.
4. Herbs stage: due to growth of mosses there is more accumulation of [Link]
stage is constituted by shallow rooted grasses such as Aristida,Festuca etc
which further replaced by shrubs.
5. Shrub stage: Species like Rhus, Phytocarpus start growing in the area, which
over compete the herbaceous species.
6. Forest stage: This is the climax community for this type of ecological
succession. Starting with Xerophytic tree species it changes into mesophytic
type and finally into forest type
SUCCESSION IN A POND OR LAKE (HYDRARCH)
Hydrarch succession refers to the type of plant succession in wet areas those
progresses from hydric conditions to mesic conditions. It eventually culminates into a
forest. It is basically a type of plant succession that begins in shallow water. A series
of changes that are observed in the hydrarch succession is referred to as
hydrosere. This converts water bodies and the communities into land communities.

Hydrarch Succession Stages

The stages of Hydrarch succession are as follows:

1. Phytoplanktons Stage:
These are the pioneer community. Mainly blue green algae, green algae,
diatoms and bacteria etc.
2. Rooted submerged stage: Due to death and decomposition of phytoplankton
organic matter start accumulating on the pond subsurface. This new
environment is favorable for the growth of rooted submerged hydrophytes like
Hydrilla, Elodea etc.
3. Rooted floating stage: Now the depth of lake reduces to 2-5 feet, favoring the
growth of rooted hydrophytes with their large leaves floating on the water
surface. Example: Nelumbo, Trapa, Azolla etc.
4. Reed-swamp stage: also known as amphibious stage as the plants of
community are rooted but most of it part is in air. Example: Scirpus, Sagittaria
etc.
5. Sedge-meadow stage: They form mat like vegetation, results into higher loss
of water through evapotranspiration process. The marsh like condition in the
previous stage is removed and area with soil moisture left. Example:
carex,cyperus etc.
6. Woodland stage: As the marsh land disappear soil become more dry and give
rise to vegetation like shrubs( Salix, cornus) and trees ( populus, Alnus).
 Forest stage: This is climax community. It can developed as tropical rain
forest or mixed forest depending upon the climate of the region. Example:
Ulmus, Acer and Quercus. The climate of the region is determined by the type
of forest.
BIODIVERSITY

 Diversity = variety; Bio= living

 Thus, variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia,
terrestrial, marine & other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of
which they are part of.
 The variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the
ecosystem complexes in which they occur.
 The complex collection comprising numerous living organisms and plants.
 Biodiversity is referred to as the variation of plant and animal species in a
particular habitat.
 Species evenness and species richness form the major components of
biodiversity.
 It is very important for human life.
 It provides basic material for food, wood, fibres, energy, raw materials,
industrial chemicals, medicines.
 It also provides for free recycling, purification and natural pest control services.

TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY

1. Genetic Diversity.

2. Species Diversity.

3. Ecosystem Diversity & Community diversity.

Genetic Diversity

 Genetic diversity is a concept of the variability within a species.

 It is measured by the variation in genes within a particular species, variety,
subspecies or breed.
 The genes found in organisms can form number of combinations each of which
give rise to some variability.
 Genes are the basic units of heredity information transmitted from one
generation to other.
Species Diversity

 Species diversity is the sum of the variety of all living organisms at the species
level.
 Species diversity is a concept of the variety of living organisms on earth and is
measured by the total number of species in the world.
 It includes earth‟s plants, animals, fungi and microbes.
 Around 1.4 million species of living organisms are named.
 The total number of living species is range of 10 – 80 million.
 Around only 1.5 million species of living organisms are named.
 Species diversity is a function of both species richness (No. of individuals of a
species) and evenness (No. of species per unit area).
Ecosystem Diversity

 It refers the variation in the structure and function of the ecosystem.

 The variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, oceans, streams, lakes, wetlands, and
other biological communities interacting with one another and with their non-
living environment.
 Ecosystem diversity is the aggregate of different environmental types in a
region.
 Ecosystem diversity explains about the interaction between living organisms
and physical environment in an ecosystem.
Community Diversity

 Variations in the biological communities in which they live.

 There are three types of Community Diversity:
a. Alpha diversity.
b. Beta diversity.
c. Gamma diversity.
α- Diversity: diversity within the community- the diversity of organisms sharing the
same community or habitats.

β- Diversity: diversity between community- species frequently change when habitat

or community changes.

γ- Diversity: diversity of the habitats over the total land space or geographical area.

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

Biosphere is a life supporting system to the human race. Each species in the biosphere
has its own significance. Biodiversity is vital for a healthy biosphere. Biodiversity is
must for the stability and proper functioning of the biosphere.

The Values of biodiversity is classified into Direct Values and Indirect Values

Some direct values are:

(i) Consumptive use, (ii) Productive use, (iii) Social, (iv) Ethical, (v)
Aesthetic values.
CONSUMPTIVE USE VALUE

Biodiversity has direct consumptive value in agriculture, medicine and industry.

The biodiversity products (Food, Fuel, Medicine and Drugs) can be harvested and
consumed directly.

Food: Human food is entirely obtained from living world. About 85% of food is
produced by plants. The remaining 15% of the world food is produced by animals.

Fuel: Forest has been used for fuel wood. The fossil fuels coal, Petroleum, Natural
Gas, are also the products of biodiversity. The fire wood is collected by individuals
are directly consumed by tribal and local villagers; hence it is consumptive use value.

Drugs and Medicine: A number of substances with medicinal properties are obtained
from plants. Around 70% of modern medicines are derived from natural products.
Many plants are used in primary health care. 20,000 plant species are believed to be
used medicinally, particularly in the traditional system of Unani, Ayurveda and Sidha.

For example

1. Germany alone uses more than 2,500 species of plants for medicinal purposes in
Homeopathy and other systems of medicines

2. India uses 3000 species of plants in Ayurveda, Homeopathy and Unani system of
medicines.

3. According to research about 85% global community use plants for primary health
care.

Some medicinal products from natural resources

Medicine Source Use

Penicillin Fungus Antibiotic
Streptomycin Actinimyeete Antibiotic
Tetracycline Bacterium Antibiotic
Quinine Cinchona Bark Malaria
Morphine Poppy Analgesic
Vinblastine Perwinkle Anticancer drug
Reserpine Rauwolfia Hypertension drug
Digitalis Foxglove Heart stimulant
Taxol Yew Tree Anticancer drug
About 30 medicines have been prepared from Neem tree which have been
proved to be very effective for stomach ailments, eye irritations skin eruptions and
diabetics.

PRODUCTIVE USE VALUES

 These are commercially usable values where the product is marketed & sold.
 Musk Deer- production of Musk, Silk Worm - Silk, wool from sheep, tusks of
elephants, lac from insects.
  Many industries are dependent upon the productive use values of biodiversity.
For example Paper and pulp, Plywood, silk, textile leather, and ivory- works
pearl industry.
 Increased oil seed production also helped in saving large amount of foreign
exchange spent on importing edible oils.

SOCIAL VALUE

 It associated with social life, customs, and religion of the people.

 In India five hundred million people depend directly or indirectly on plant
derived drugs for their health care needs.
 In our country many of the plant leaves, fruits and flowers of Tulsi, peepal,
mango, lotus, bael are used in worship.
 The tribal people are very closely linked with the wildlife in forests and their
social life, songs, dances and customs are closely woven around the wildlife.
 Marine fisheries provided about 84 million tones of food for humans and
livestock.
 Gene technology has been helping in generating economic and health benefits
from biodiversity at the cellular and molecular levels.
 Biological processes are being used for industrial production and
environmental clean up.
 Many animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock, owl also hold social importance.

ETHICAL VALUE(EXISTENCE VAUES)

 It means that we may or may not use a species but knowing the fact that this
species exists in nature gives us pleasure.
 All biological populations must find ways to ensure the sustainable use of
biological resources by balancing present developmental progress with the needs
of future generations.
 We are not deriving anything from Kangaroo, zebra but we all strongly feel
that these species should exist in nature.
 Small animals play an important role in ecological balance.
For example

Rats, which feed on grains and are taken as food materials by snakes. Thus
snakes are friends of farmers as they save huge quantity of grain which otherwise will
be destroyed by rats.

According to an estimate, about 2% food grain is eaten by rats in the world.

But if this is allowed to happen, the population of snakes will increase. But eagles are
there which feed on snakes and thus maintain a balance in the nature. The ecosystem
diversity rendered services include pollination, chemical cycling, nutrient cycling, and
soil maintenance and climate regulation.
AESTHETIC VALUE

It is related to the beauty of Biodiversity.

Biodiversity also has great aesthetic value.
The pleasure, excitement and visual peace of any area
Eco-tourism, bird watching, wild-life, pet keeping, gardening are some
example of aesthetic rewards of biodiversity.
OPTION VALUE

This includes the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and
need to be explored.
This biological resources will be of imporatnce in future if not today
Eg. Marine animals – anti cancer drugs.
ECOSYSTEM VALUE

It refers to ecosystem services, it is a non-consumptive value.

Functions of ecosystems- nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, cycling of water.
Etc.

HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

 Area which exhibit high species richness and high species endemism are called
Hotspots of biodiversity.
 According to Conservation International, a region must fulfil the following two
criteria to qualify as a hotspot:

1. The region should have at least 1500 species of vascular plants i.e., it
should have a high degree of endemism.
2. It must contain 30% (or less) of its original habitat, i.e. it must be
threatened.
 Hot spot was developed by Norman Myers in 1988.
 There are 34 H.S have been identified over the world.
 H.S occupy 2.5% of the earth‟s land area.
 About 20% of the human population lives in the H.S.
 Myers introduced this term, at that time 25 Hotspots were identified out of
which 2 were in India. Later 9 were added more bringing a total to 34.
 About 40% terrestrial & 25 % vertebrate are endemic found in this hotspots
 After tropical rain forests the second highest number endemic species are found
in Mediterranean
 These hotspots are threatened by human activities. More than 1 billion people
most whom are desperately poor people, live in these areas.
 Measures protecting these areas should be planned.
[Link] Name of Hotspots S. No Name of Hotspots
1 Tropical Andes 18 Phillipines
2 Mesoamerican Forests 19 Indo-Burma
3 Caribbean 20 South Central China
4 Brazil‟s Atlantic Forest 21 Western Ghats
5 Choc/Darien of Panama Western 22 South-Western Australia
Ecuador
6 Brazil‟s Cerrado 23 New Caledonia
7 Central Chile 24 New Zealand
8 California Floristic Province 25 Polynesia/Micronesia
9 Madagascar 26 The Madrean Pine-Oak woodlands
10 Eastern Arc & Coastal forest of 27 Maputaland-Pondoland Albany
Tanzania/ Kenya
11 Western African Forest 28 The eastern Afromontane
12 Cape Floristic Province 29 The Horn Africa
13 Succulent Karoo 30 The Irano-Anatolian
14 Mediterranean Basin 31 The Muntains of Central Asia
15 Caucasus 32 Eastern Himalaya
16 Sundaland 33 Japan
17 Wallacea 34 East Melanesiaan Islands
Following the criteria for an area to be declared as a Biodiversity Hotspot, there are
major four biodiversity hotspots in India:

 Among the 34 hot spots in the world, the four found in India are

1. The Himalayas
2. Indo-Burma Region
3. The Western Ghats
4. Sundaland

 These four are extended to the neighboring countries also.

 The Indian H.S are rich in flowering plants, also in reptiles, amphibians,
swallow-tailed butterflies and some mammals and also show high degree of
endemism.
EASTERN HIMALAYAS

 This area comprises Nepal, Bhutan and neighboring states of Northern India.
 Many deep and semi isolated valleys are found in this area.
 These valleys are rich in endemic plant species.
 There are 9000 plant species with 3,500 of them being endemic.
 On Indian side, 5800 plant species are found, of which 36% being endemic.
 Eastern Himalayas is an active centre of evolution and exhibits flowering
plants.
 Numerous primitive angiosperm families and primitive genera of plants are
found in this area.
 The Eastern Himalayas are also rich in wild relative of plants of economic
value like rice, banana, citrus, ginger, chilly, and sugarcane.
 63% mammals are from Eastern Himalayas and more than 60% of the Indian
Birds are recorded in the North East. Huge wealth of plants, fungi, insects,
mammals, birds have been found in this region.

WESTERN GHATS

 It is one of the most important biogeographic zones of India.

 It lies parallel to the Weston coast of Indian peninsula and spread over in
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala.
 It has 40% of total endemic plant species. The evergreen forests are found at
low elevation (500 m above sea level) while semi evergreen forests occur at
500-1500 m height.
 Around 1,500 endemic plant species are reported from Western Ghats, which
includes orchids also. Approximately 315 species of vertebrates have become
endemic including amphibians and reptiles, flying squirrel, Malabar gray
hornbill are the rare animals.
 As per UNESCO, it is home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna,
bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species.
 Originally, the vegetation in this region was spread over 190,000 km2 but has
been now reduced to 43,000 km2.
 The region is also known for the globally threatened flora and fauna
represented by 229 plant species, 31 mammal species, 15 bird species, 43
amphibian species, 5 reptile species and 1 fish species.
 UNESCO mentions that of the total 325 globally threatened species in the
Western Ghats, 129 are classified as Vulnerable, 145 as Endangered and 51 as
Critically Endangered.
 It has two main centers of biodiversity are
o The Agastryamalai Hills and Silent valley
o (ii) The new Amambalam Reserve Basin.
INDO – BURMA REGION
 The Indo-Burma Region is stretched over a distance of 2,373,000 km².
 In the last 12 years, 6 large mammal species have been discovered in this
region: the Large-antlered Muntjac, the Annamite Muntjac, the Grey-shanked
Douc, the Annamite Striped Rabbit, the Leaf Deer, and the Saola.
 This hotspot is also known for the endemic fresh water turtle species, most of
which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and extensive
habitat loss.
 There are also 1,300 different bird species, including the threatened White-
eared Night-heron, the Grey-crowned Crocias, and the Orange-necked
Partridge.

SUNDALAND

 The Sundaland hotspot lies in Southeast Asia and covers Singapore, Thailand,
Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia.
 In the year 2013, the Sundaland was declared as a World Biosphere Reserve by
the United Nations.
 This region is famous for its rich terrestrial and marine ecosystem.
 Sundaland is one of the biologically richest hotspots in the world which
comprises 25,000 species of vascular plants, of which 15,000 are found only in
this region.

IUCN RED LIST

Founded in 1964, the IUCN Red List also known as the Red Data List
evaluates the biological species in the world which are at the risk of extinction. IUCN
aims to focus on the conservation of the world‟s species to reduce species extinction.
More than 77,300 species have been assessed on the IUCN Red List.

The IUCN Red List can be divided into the following 9 categories:

1. Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining.

2. Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a
naturalized population outside its historic range.
3. Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
4. Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild.
5. Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild.
6. Near Threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered shortly.
7. Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category.
Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.
8. Data Deficient (DD) – Not enough data to assess its risk of extinction.
9. Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria
 INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

 Mega diversity means exhibiting great biodiversity.

 The term mega diverse country refers to any one of a group of nations that
harbor the majority of Earth's species and high numbers of endemic species.
 A mega diverse country must have at least 5,000 species of endemic plants and
must border marine ecosystems.
 Conservation International identified 17 mega diverse countries in 1998.
 Many of them are located in, or partially in, tropical or subtropical regions.
 India is one of the 17 mega biodiversity countries in the world.
 India contains about 8% of the world‟s biodiversity.
 India is home to about 5 world heritage sites
 India Ranks 10th among the plant richness countries
 Indian ranks 6th among centre of biodiversity and origin of agricultural crops.
 With only 2.4% of world‟s land area, accounts for 8% of the species of the
world. About 47,000 plant species and 89,000 animal species of India are
endemic which are 7.3% and 6.5% of global diversity respectively
 A large number of species which are originated in India are called as centre of
origin
 Nearly 5000 species of flowering plants, 160 species of crops and 320 species
of wild relatives of cultivable crops having centre of Origin in India
 India has 7500 Km long coastline having (mangroves, estuaries, coral reefs,
back waters) rich biodiversity.
 More than 340 species of corals are found in India
 Rich in Mollusks, crustaceans, polychaetes, corals
 93 major wetlands, Large Forest Cover.
 India has good number of endemic species. About 62% amphibians, 50%
Lizards are endemic to India and maximum number of endemic species is in
the Western Ghats.
 India is also rich in agro diversity.
 India has been the centre of origin of 166 species of crop plants and 320
species of wild cultivated crops.
 More than 340 species of corals of the world are found in India.
 Several species of mangrove plants and Sea grasses (marine algae) are also
found in our country.
 Indian forests cover 64.01 million hectares having a rich biodiversity of plants
in the Trans -Himalayan, North-west, West, Central and eastern Himalayan
forests, Western Ghats, Coasts, deserts, Gangetic plains, Deccan plateau and
Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

„The management of human use of biodiversity so that it may give maximum

benefits to the present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
aspirations of the future generations‟.

There are two basic types of conservation.

(i) In-situ conservation: On site- Within habitat

(ii) Ex-situ conservation: Off site- Out side habitat

In-situ conservation

 Conservation or protection of flora and fauna within natural habitat is called in-
situ conservation.
 Example: Biosphere Reserve, National Parks, Sanctuaries and Sacred Forests
and Lakes.
Biosphere Reserve:

 It is a special category of protected land or coastal environment. At present

there are 12 biosphere reserves in India.
Nanda devi(UP), Nokrek(Meghalaya), Manas(Assam), Sunderbans(W.B), Gulf of
Mannar(TN), Nilgiri(Karnataka, Kerala, TN), Great Nicobars and
Similipal(Orrisa), Agasthyamalai(Kerala), Pachmarhi(MP),
Khanghendzonga(Sikkim) and Dechan debang(Arunachal Pradesh).

National Parks:

 An area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment.
 Strictly reserved for the welfare of wild life.
 Activities such as forestry, grazing or cultivation are not allowed.
 Private ownership rights are not permitted.
Some important National parks in India:

1. Kaziranga NP (Assam) – 430 sq km in area.

2. Gir NP(Gujarat) – 1,412 sq km
3. Bandipur(Karnataka) – 874 sq km
4. Kanha NP (MP) – 940 sq km
5. Corbett NP (UP) -525 sq km
6. Hazaribagh NP (Bihar) 186 sq km
7. Sunderbans (W.B) – 2585 sq km
8. Tandoba NP (Maharastra) – 116 sq km
9. Desert NP (Rajasthan) 3600 sq km
10. Mundanthurai- TN
Sanctuaries:

 An area which is reserved only for conservation of animals.

 Harvesting of Timber, Collection of minor forest products and private
ownership rights are allowed provided they do not affect the animals adversely.
Some important wild life Sanctuaries are:

1. Ghana Bird Sanctuaries (rajasthan) – 29 sq km

2. Anamalai Sanctuaries (Coimbatore, TN)- 958 sq km
3. Sultanpur Lake Bird Sanctuaries (Haryana) - 12 sq km
4. Mudumalai wildlife Sanctuaries (TN) – 520 sq km
5. Nagarjuna Sagar Sanctuaries (AP) – 3568 sq km
6. Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuaries (TN)
7. Jaldapara wildlife Sanctuaries (WB) – 1155 sq km
8. Periyar Sanctuaries ( Kerala) -777 sq km
9. Shikari Devi (H.P) – 213 sq km
10. Chilka Lake Sanctuaries (Orissa) – 990 sq km.

Sacred Forests and Lakes:

Sacred Forests: Most undisturbed forests without any human impact. Many
states of in our country possess sacred forest. These are serving as protective centres
for number of rare, endangered and endemic species.

Sacred Lakes: Aquatic Flora and fauna is also protected in sacred water
bodies. Khecheopalri Lake in Sikkim has been declared sacred by the people to save
aquatic life.

(ii) Ex- situ Conservation

 It refers to the conservation of biodiversity at places away from their natural

habitat.
 These include botanical gardens, Zoos, herbarium specimens, cryopreservation,
seed storage at low temperatures, genetic resource centers, Tissue culture and
DNA banks etc.,
 Storage of germplasm at ultra low temperature (at a T of – 196°C in liquid N2)
is known as Cryopreservation.
 It is useful for conserving seeds, vegetatively propagated parts, and tissue
culture.
 By cryopreservation germplasm can be stored for a long period of time.
 In India, we have the following gene banks/ seed banks facilities:

(i) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)- New
Delhi- Agricultural and horticultural crops and their wild relatives are
preserved by cryopreservation of seeds.
(ii) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR)- Karnal-
Haryana- Preserve the semen of domesticated bovine animals
  Gene banks are other ways of preservation of genetic resources under normal
growing conditions.
 Botanical gardens and zoos are the most common places for the conservation
of biodiversity.
 All over the world there are more than 1500 botanical gardens and arboreta
which contain more than 80,000 plant species.
 Arboreta- Botanical gardens where specific tree and shrub species are
cultivated.
 Many of the botanical gardens have seed banks, tissue culture facilities.
 Around the world there are 800 zoos are harboured by about 3,000 species of
mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Human population and other living organisms on earth have to share the limited food,
water, space due to loss of natural habitat because remaining land is developed for
human habitation and activities.

Major threats of biodiversity

i) Loss of Habitat

The greatest threat to biodiversity is habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. Due
to habitat fragmentation many song birds are vanishing. Deforestation of tropical
forests is the greatest eliminator of species. The wet lands are destroyed due to
draining, filling, pollution thereby causing huge biodiversity loss. By human
intervention the marine biodiversity is also serious threat.

ii) Over harvesting (Poaching)

Harvesting is other wise known as poaching. This results in reduced land availability
for other species and other diversity, encroachment and degradation of other sources
like water and soil. Wildlife is being continuously hunted and poached for food, profit
and other needs. This illegal trade in projected species operates as one of the most
profitable illicit markets in the world. Specific invests to certain animals are related to
large economic benefits. The skin and bones of tigers, ivory of elephants, horns of
rhinos and perfume of the musk deer are extensively used and in high demand. Corals
and shells are collected for export on beaches of Chennai, Kanyakumari and A.
Nicobar Islands. A variety of wild plants with medicinal values are being
overharvested eg : Nux Vomica, Datura.

iii) Man – Wildlife Conflicts: The loss of species occur due to the destruction of
natural ecosystems, either for conversion to agriculture or industry by humans. Human
– wildlife conflict is defined by the world wide Fund for Nature (WWF) as „any
interaction between humans and wildlife that result in negative impacts on human,
social, economic or cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife populations, or on the
environment. As human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife
territory is displaced.

iv) Excessive use of pesticides

The excessive use of pesticides has threatened the biological diversity on soil, water
and air.

v) Use of radioactive rays

The release of radioactivity during experiments of atom bombs, hydrogen bombs and
other explosions during war or accidents has also posed threat to biological diversity.

vi) Over exploitation

Hunting and fishing leads to loss of wild life.

Logging and deforestation affected the natural environment.

Many species are affected by felling of trees and shrubs, formation of road and
pollution. Soil erosion also affect, besides the fragmentation of habitats.

Open cast mining causes pollution which has adverse effects on the aquatic ecosystem
and health of population.

Modification or rerouting and damming of water causes for power generations and
irrigation have strong effect on the ecology of the area.

The growth of urban centers and settlements are some of the causes of exerting
pressure on the ecosystem.

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

ENDANGERED SPECIES:

 Species could soon become extinct in all of its natural range.

 The species that are at risk of extinction due to the sudden decrease in their
population and habitat are known as endangered species.
The basic reasons of extinction of wildlife are,

1. Destruction of their natural habitats due to expanding agriculture, urbanization and

industrialization.

2. Overgrazing by domestic animals that convert the area extinction into deserts

3. Poaching for meat, skin, fur, ivory, rhinohorns etc.,

4. Export of some species.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

(IUCN) has published Red List or Red Data Book.
  It includes the list of endangered species of plants and animals.
 The red data indicates the warning signal for those species which are
endangered and if not protected are likely to become extinct in nature.
 In India 450 plant species have been identified as endangered and threatened
categories.
 About 150 mammals and 150 birds are estimated to be threatened.
 The top 5 endangered species (Flora and Fauna) in India are listed in the table
below:

Endangered Animal Species Endangered Plant Species

The Royal Bengal Tiger Ebony tree
The Great Asiatic Lion Indian Mallow
The Snow Leopard Malabar Lily
Nilgiri Tahr Assam Catkin Yew
Indian Rhino Milkwort

According to RED-data book 44 plant species are critically endangered, 54

endangered and 143 are vulnerable. India ranks second in terms of the number of
mammals.

Species in India that are on the verge of extinction;

Kolar Leaf-nosed Large bat-like rock rat
Namdapha The Squirrel That Can Fly
Nicobar Hangul, also known as the Chinese Pangolin and Jenkin‟s Shrew
Andaman White-toothed Shrew
Sumatran Rhinoceros
Javan Rhinoceros
Pygmy Hog
Malabar Civet.
ENDEMIC SPECIES

o The species which are only found among a particular place or in a particular
region are known as endemic species.
o Species are said to be endemic when they are exclusive to a single location and
cannot be found anywhere else on the planet. Kangaroos, for instance, are a
native species that can only be found in Australia; they are not found anywhere
else in the globe.
o India has large number of endemic species.
o Out of 47,000 species of plants in India 7000 are endemic.
o India has about 62% endemic plants restricted mainly to Himalayas, Khasi
Hills and Western Ghats.
o A large number of animals in India are endemic.
 o The Western Ghats are rich in amphibians (Frogs, Toads) and Reptiles
(Lizards, Crocodiles).
o About 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
o Salamander and viviparous toad are some important endemic.

Endemic Species of India

The following is a list of the species that are unique to India and can only be
found here:
The Asiatic Lion in the Gir Forest
Kashmir Stag in the Kashmir Valley
Lion-Tailed Macaque in the Western Ghats
Purple Frog in the Western Ghats
Sangai Deer in the Loktak Lake
Nilgiri Tahr in the Nilgiri Hills
Other species that can only be found in India include the following:
Pygmy Hog, Assam
Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
Malabar Civet, Western Ghats
Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills
Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh
Indian Giant Squirrel
Bonnet Macaque

Dr. R. Thiruneelakandan, [Link]., [Link]., Ph.D.

Professor
Department of Chemistry
UCE, BIT Campus
Anna University,
Tiruchirappalli – 620 024.