Higher National Diploma (HND I) Lecture Notes
Course Title: Hydraulics
Topic: Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
Lecturer: Dr. Ozomata Agoyi
2.1 Concept of Dimensional Analysis
Definition:
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique used in engineering and physical
sciences to understand the relationships between different physical quantities by
identifying their base dimensions (such as Mass [M], Length [L], and Time [T]). It is
especially useful in reducing complex physical problems into simpler forms.
Objectives of Dimensional Analysis:
To determine the correctness of physical equations.
To derive relationships between variables.
To reduce the number of variables in an experiment.
To identify important dimensionless parameters that control physical phenomena.
Basic/Primary Dimensions in Hydraulics:
Mass [M]
Length [L]
Time [T]
Temperature [θ]
Electric current [I]
Example:
Velocity has the dimension: Velocity = Length/Time = LT−1
Benefits of Dimensional Analysis:
Saves cost by reducing experimental runs.
Provides insight into scale modeling.
Verifies equations and results.
Helps derive formulas when governing equations are not known.
Practical Use Cases:
Predicting wind load on a building using a wind tunnel model.
Estimating sediment transport in rivers based on dimensionless parameters.
Analyzing heat exchanger performance using Nusselt number correlations.
2.2 Applications of Dimensional Analysis
1. Verifying Equations: Ensures equations are dimensionally consistent.
2. Scaling Experiments: Helps in designing scale models of prototypes (e.g., aircraft,
ships, spillways).
3. Identifying Dominant Forces: Helps in identifying whether inertial, viscous, or
gravitational forces dominate.
4. Empirical Correlations: Useful in developing empirical formulas in heat transfer,
fluid mechanics, etc.
5. Unit Conversion: Facilitates conversion between different unit systems.
6. Design Optimization: Engineers can predict performance without full-scale
testing.
Example in Engineering:
Determining friction loss in pipes using empirical relationships derived from dimensional
analysis.
2.3 Procedure Used in Dimensional Analysis
1. Identify Relevant Variables: List all physical quantities involved in the problem.
2. Express in Fundamental Dimensions: Write each quantity in terms of M, L, T, etc.
3. Choose Repeating Variables: Select 3 variables that are independent and common
(usually include one each for M, L, T).
4. Form Dimensionless Groups (Pi Terms): Use the Buckingham π-theorem to form
dimensionless numbers.
5. Derive the Functional Relationship: Combine all π terms to form an equation:
π1 = f (π2, π3, ...)
Example: Drag Force
Variables: Drag force F [MLT2], velocity V [LT-1], diameter D [L], density ρ [ML-3],
viscosity μ [ML-1T-1].
Using Buckingham π-theorem, derive:
F
2 2 = f(μρVD)
ρV D
This results in two dimensionless numbers:
F
Drag coefficient: CD = 2 2
ρV D
Reynolds number: Re = ρVD/μ
2.4 Solving Problems Using Dimensional Analysis
Example 1:
Determine the dimensionless parameters affecting the pressure drop ΔP in a pipe.
Variables involved: ΔP, L, D, μ, ρ, V
Solution:
Use Buckingham π-theorem:
Number of variables = 6, Fundamental dimensions = 3
Expected dimensionless groups = 3
The resulting dimensionless groups could be:
Reynolds Number: Re = ρVD/μ
Friction Factor: f=ΔPD/ρV2L
Relative length ratio: L/D
Example 2:
Find the relationship between period of oscillation T, length L, and gravity g for a simple
pendulum.
Assume: T=kLagbT = kL^a g^b
Using dimensions:
[T]=[L]a[LT−2]b=La+bT−2b[T] = [L]^a [LT^{-2}]^b = L^{a + b} T^{-2b}
Equating exponents:
T: 1 = -2b → b = -0.5
L: 0 = a + b → a = 0.5
T=kLgT = k \sqrt{\frac{L}{g}}
2.5 Definition of Similitude
Similitude refers to the similarity between a model and its prototype such that
experimental results obtained from the model can be applied to the prototype by using
appropriate scaling laws.
Types of Similarity Required:
1. Geometric Similarity
2. Kinematic Similarity
3. Dynamic Similarity
2.6 Uses of Similitude
Model testing in hydraulic laboratories
Ship hull design and testing
Wind tunnel experiments for aerodynamics
Structural analysis (bridges, dams, buildings)
Earthquake simulation on building models
River flow and sediment transport prediction
Design of spillways, weirs, sluices, and harbours
2.7 Types of Similarity
1. Geometric Similarity:
Model and prototype have the same shape but different sizes. All linear dimensions have
the same scale ratio.
Example: A 1:50 scale dam model: if prototype height is 100 m, the model is 2 m high.
2. Kinematic Similarity:
Similarity of motion; model and prototype have the same velocity ratios, streamlines, and
flow patterns.
Example: Testing ship movement in calm water — the model's velocity vector field must
match that of the full-scale ship (adjusted for scale).
3. Dynamic Similarity:
Similarity of forces. All relevant dimensionless numbers (e.g., Re, Fr) must be equal in
model and prototype.
Example: In spillway design, dynamic similarity ensures gravitational and inertial forces
scale properly using the Froude number.
More Teaching Examples:
A wind tunnel test ensures Reynolds number equality between model and actual
aircraft for drag estimation.
A scaled harbor basin is tested to predict wave reflection using Froude number
scaling.
2.8 Application of Reynolds and Froude Model Laws
Reynolds Model Law (used when viscous forces dominate, e.g., internal pipe flow):
Re = ρVL/μ → Re model = Re prototype
Froude Model Law (used when gravitational forces dominate, e.g., open channel flow,
spillways):
Fr = V/√ gL »» Frmodel = Frprototype
Key Differences:
Reynolds Law → Viscous flow (low speed, pipe, lubrication)
Froude Law → Gravity flow (free surface, waves, rivers)
2.9 Problem Solving with Model Laws
Example 1: (Froude Law)
A model of a dam is built at a scale of 1:20. If the model discharge is 0.5 m3/s, what is
the prototype discharge using Froude similarity?
Solution:
for Froude similarity:
( )
5
Lp 2
Q p=Q m∗
Lm
0.5 * 20^(5/2) = 0.5 * 1
Example 2: (Froude Law)
A ship 200 m long moves in sea water. A 5 m long model is tested in fresh water. What
model speed corresponds to prototype speed of 8 m/s
Solution:
√
Vm 8 5
= ≫V m=8∗ =8∗¿
√ g∗5 √ g∗200 200
Example 3: Froude Law (Spillway design)
A model of a spillway 1:10 is tested. If water flows at 1.0 m/s in the model, find the
prototype velocity.
Solution:
Froude Number must be the same:
Vm Vp Vm Vp
= ≫ =
√ g Lm √ g L p √ g Lm √ g 10 L p
V p=V m∗√ 10=1.0∗√ 10 ≈ 3.16 m/s
Example 4: Renolds Law (Pipe Flow)
A 1:5 scale model is tested using air instead of water. To maintain dynamic similarity
(Renolds number), what should be done?
ρVL
ℜ=
μ
If air is used, dynamic similarity is difficult to achieve due to very different viscosities
and densities. Use the same fluid or apply correction factors.
Question 5
State the criteria to achieve dynamic similarity between a model and a prototype.
Answer:
Geometric similarity (constant ratio of dimensions).
Kinematic similarity (same velocity patterns).
Dynamic similarity (matching dimensionless numbers like Re, Fr).
Aspect Model Prototy
A scaled-down (or scaled-up) representation of The actual real-world system o
Definition
a real system for testing. modeled.
Used for experimental study under controlled
Purpose Functions in real operating con
conditions.
Smaller or larger than the prototype depending
Size Actual full-scale size.
on need.
Cost Economical to build and modify. Expensive to construct and mo
Location Usually tested in laboratory environments. Located in the field or real-wo
Used to predict behavior of the prototype
Testing Represents the real operating p
through similitude.
Similarity Type Dominant Forces Governing Dimensi
Kinematic
Motion & velocity profiles Often leads to dynamic sim
Similitude
Dynamic Similitude Froude number: Fr=VgLFr
Inertial vs. gravitational
(Froude) sqrt{gL}}
Dynamic Similitude Reynolds number: Re=ρVL
Inertial vs. viscous
(Reynolds) {\mu}
Guideline:
Use Froude scaling when free-surface or gravity effects dominate (e.g., dams,
spillways).
Use Reynolds scaling when viscous effects dominate (e.g., pipe flow, airfoil
drag).
Quiz Questions and Answers
1. What is the dimensional formula of force?
Answer: [MLT^-2]
2. List three uses of dimensional analysis.
Answer: (i) Checking equation consistency (ii) Reducing variables (iii) Developing
empirical formulas
3. What condition is needed to satisfy dynamic similarity?
Answer: Equal dimensionless numbers (e.g., Reynolds or Froude numbers) between
model and prototype
4. A model has a length scale of 1:25. What is the area scale?
Answer: Area ratio = (1/25)^2 = 1/625
5. What is the significance of Reynolds Number?
Answer: It indicates the relative importance of inertial and viscous forces in a fluid flow.
6. What type of similarity ensures streamlines are identical?
Answer: Kinematic Similarity
7. What dimensionless number governs open channel flow?
Answer: Froude Number
8. Why is geometric similarity not sufficient for dynamic similitude?
Answer: Because force ratios must also be preserved (requiring dynamic similarity).
Practice Questions
1. Derive a dimensionless group for the thrust force on a propeller using: force, fluid
density, velocity, and propeller diameter.
2. A 1:40 scale model of a ship is tested. If the model speed is 2 m/s, find the
prototype speed (use Froude law).
3. Differentiate between geometric and kinematic similarity with examples.
4. A fluid flows through a pipe. Use dimensional analysis to find the form of the
relationship between pressure drop, length, diameter, density, viscosity, and
velocity.
5. Explain why Froude number is used in spillway design but not Reynolds number.
6. A model turbine operates at 500 rpm. If the scale ratio is 1:5, what is the
prototype rpm under Froude similarity?
7. Use Buckingham Pi theorem to find dimensionless groups for heat transfer from a
flat plate.
8. Explain how similitude principles apply in wind tunnel experiments.
This concludes the comprehensive lecture notes for Dimensional Analysis and
Similitude. Students are encouraged to study each section carefully and practice the
examples to gain mastery.
