🔗 6.
1 Basic Definitions
🔗 In Chapter 1 we introduced the concept of the Cartesian product of sets. Let’s
assume that a person owns three shirts and two pairs of slacks. More precisely,
let A = {blue shirt, tan shirt, mint green shirt} and
B = {grey slacks, tan slacks}. Then A × B is the set of all six possible
combinations of shirts and slacks that the individual could wear. However, an
individual may wish to restrict himself or herself to combinations which are
color coordinated, or “related.” This may not be all possible pairs in A × B but
will certainly be a subset of A × B. For example, one such subset may be
{(blue shirt, grey slacks), (blue shirt, tan slacks), (mint green shirt, tan slacks)}.
🔗 6.1.1 Relations between two sets
🔗 Definition 6.1.1. Relation. Let A and B be sets. A relation from A into B is
any subset of A × B.
🔗 Example 6.1.2. A simple example. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}.
Then {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 5)} is a relation from A into B. Of course, there are
many others we could describe; 64, to be exact.
🔗 Example 6.1.3. Divisibility Example. Let A = {2, 3, 5, 6} and define a
relation r from A into A by (a, b) ∈ r if and only if a divides evenly into b. The
set of pairs that qualify for membership is
r = {(2, 2), (3, 3), (5, 5), (6, 6), (2, 6), (3, 6)}.
🔗 6.1.2 Relations on a Set
🔗 Definition 6.1.4. Relation on a Set. A relation from a set A into itself is
called a relation on A.
🔗 The relation “divides” in Example 6.1.3 will appear throughout the book. Here is
a general definition on the whole set of integers.
🔗 Definition 6.1.5. Divides. Let a, b ∈ Z, a ≠ 0. We say that a divides b,
denoted a ∣ b, if and only if there exists an integer k such that ak = b.
🔗 Be very careful in writing about the relation “divides.” The vertical line symbol
use for this relation, if written carelessly, can look like division. While a ∣ b is
either true or false, a/b is a number.
🔗 Based on the equation ak = b, we can say that a|b is equivalent to k = , or a
b
divides evenly into b. In fact the “divides” is short for “divides evenly into.” You
might find the equation k = initially easier to understand, but in the long run
b
we will find the equation ak = b more convenient.
🔗 Sometimes it is helpful to illustrate a relation with a graph. Consider
Example 6.1.2. A graph of r can be drawn as in Figure 6.1.6. The arrows indicate
that 1 is related to 4 under r. Also, 2 is related to 4 under r, and 3 is related to 5,
while the upper arrow denotes that r is a relation from the whole set A into the
set B.
🔗 Figure 6.1.6. The graph of a relation
🔗 A typical element in a relation r is an ordered pair (x, y). In some cases, r can
be described by actually listing the pairs which are in r, as in the previous
examples. This may not be convenient if r is relatively large. Other notations are
used with certain well-known relations. Consider the “less than or equal” relation
on the real numbers. We could define it as a set of ordered pairs this way:
≤= {(x, y)|x ≤ y}
🔗 However, the notation x ≤ y is clear and self-explanatory; it is a more natural,
and hence preferred, notation to use than (x, y) ∈≤ .
🔗 Many of the relations we will work with “resemble” the relation ≤ , so xsy is a
common way to express the fact that x is related to y through the relation s.
🔗 Relation Notation Let s be a relation from a set A into a set B. Then the fact that
(x, y) ∈ s is frequently written xsy.
🔗 6.1.3 Composition of Relations
🔗 With A = {2, 3, 5, 8}, B = {4, 6, 16}, and C , let r be the relation
= {1, 4, 5, 7}
“divides,” from A into B, and let s be the relation ≤ from B into C . So
r = {(2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 16), (3, 6), (8, 16)} and
s = {(4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 7), (6, 7)}.
🔗 Notice that in Figure 6.1.8 that we can, for certain elements of A, go through
elements in B to results in C . That is:
🔗 Table 6.1.7.
2|4 and 4 ≤ 4
2|4 and 4 ≤ 5
2|4 and 4 ≤ 7
2|6 and 6 ≤ 7
3|6 and 6 ≤ 7
🔗 Figure 6.1.8. Relation Composition - a graphical view
🔗 Based on this observation, we can define a new relation, call it rs, from A into
C . In order for (a, c) to be in rs, it must be possible to travel along a path in
Figure 6.1.8 from a to c. In other words, (a, c) ∈ rs if and only if
(∃b) (arb and bsc). The name rs was chosen because it reminds us that this
B
new relation was formed by the two previous relations r and s. The complete
listing of all elements in rs is {(2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 7), (3, 7)}. We summarize in a
definition.
🔗 Definition 6.1.9. Composition of Relations. Let r be a relation from a
set A into a set B, and let s be a relation from B into a set C . The composition
of r with s, written rs, is the set of pairs of the form (a, c) ∈ A × C , where
(a, c) ∈ rs if and only if there exists b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ r and (b, c) ∈ s.
🔗 Remark: A word of warning to those readers familiar with composition of
functions. (For those who are not, disregard this remark. It will be repeated at an
appropriate place in the next chapter.) As indicated above, the traditional way of
describing a composition of two relations is rs where r is the first relation and s
the second. However, function composition is traditionally expressed in the
opposite order: s ∘ r, where r is the first function and s is the second.
🔗 6.1.4 Exercises
🔗 1. For each of the following relations r defined on P, determine which of the
given ordered pairs belong to r
🔗 a. xry iff x|y; (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 8), (2, 17)
b. xry iff x ≤ y; (2, 3), (3, 2), (2, 4), (5, 8)
c. xry iff y = x ; (1,1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 6)
2
Answer.
🔗 2. The following relations are on P = {0, 1, 2, … 8, 9}. Let
A = {(9, 8), (9, 7), (6, 5), (6, 4), (3, 2), (3, 1)}
🔗 and
B = {((8, 6), (7, 6), (5, 3), (4, 3), (2, 0), (1, 0)}.
🔗 a. List all elements in AB.
b. List all elements in BA.
c. Illustrate AB and BA via a diagram.
d. In one version of the game of nim players A and B take turns removing
one or two stones from a pile. The player who manages to remove the
last stone wins. Explain how these two relations describe the winning
moves for B if A plays first with nine stones in the pile at the start of the
game.
🔗 3. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and define r on A by xry iff x + 1 = y. We define
r
2
= rr and r3 2
= r r . Find:
a. r
b. 2
r
c. r3
Answer.
🔗 4. Given s and t, relations on Z, s = {(1, n) : n ∈ Z} and
t = {(n, 1) : n ∈ Z} , what are st and ts? Hint: Even when a relation involves
infinite sets, you can often get insights into them by drawing partial graphs.
🔗 5. Let ρ be the relation on the power set, P(S), of a finite set S of cardinality n
defined ρ by (A, B) ∈ ρ iff A ∩ B = ∅.
🔗 a. Consider the specific case n = 3, and determine the cardinality of the set
ρ.
b. What is the cardinality of ρ for an arbitrary n? Express your answer in
terms of n. (Hint: There are three places that each element of S can go in
building an element of ρ.)
Answer.
🔗 6. Consider the two relations on people: M , where aM b if a’s mother is b; and
S , where aSb if a and b are siblings. Describe, in words, the two relations M S
and SM in simple English terms.
🔗 7. Let r , r , and r be relations on any set A. Prove that if r
1 2 3 1 ⊆ r2 then
r1r3 ⊆ r2r3 .
Solution.
