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CHAPTER ONE
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF COMPUTERS AND ICT

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Computers have become a ubiquitous (a post-desktop model of human computer interaction in
which information processing has been thoroughly integrated into everyday objects and activities)
feature of modern life. It would be difficult to get through a day without some activity involving a
computer, be it composing e-mail on a computer sitting on a desk, using a computer hidden inside a cell
phone, or receiving a bill generated by a computer at the power company. Computer science allows all
these activities to happen. But what is computer science? It sounds simple enough computer science is a
branch of science that studies computers. But not everyone who works with computers is a computer
scientist. The use and development of computers comprises a number of overlapping disciplines.

1.1- Understanding Basic Computing Terms

There are several general terms that you will need to know as we begin today‟s workshop.
- Data is electronic information.
- A computer file is a collection of data stored as an individual entity. Computers contain many different
types of files, Some are called documents. Files are stored in folders, or directories, which, like drawers
in a filing cabinet, keep related files together.
- Information is a conceptual representation that permits the representation of facts.
- A program is a series of steps to accomplish a given task. In general usage, a program might
refer to everyday instructions, written in English, such as instructions to change a tire or
register for a college class. In computer science, however, the term “program” refers to a
series of steps given to a computer.
- A computer is an electronic device for performing logical and mathematical operations based
on its programs. The term includes not only the obvious electronic devices that have a screen,
keyboard, printer, and so on, but also computers that are embedded into devices like those at
supermarket checkout counters or in DVD players. What makes computers interesting and
powerful is that they can be given arbitrary sets of instructions to perform.
- Hardware refers to all the physical devices that make up a computer system, both those
inside the computer “case” and those outside the case, like monitor, keyboard, and mouse.
- Software refers to the programs the computer executes. For example, the word processor
Microsoft Word, or the computer game “Half-Life,” is software, as is a program that
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enables a cell phone display so the user can select a new ring-tone. By analogy, when you
play a movie in a DVD player, the movie is the software and the player is the hardware.
- A programmer is someone who creates programs.
- User refers to a person who uses a software program or computer.
There are two basic parts of a computer: hardware and software. Hardware refers to all the
physical components of a computer, including the monitor, system unit, keyboard, mouse, microphone,
speakers, and printer. Software refers to the electronic files that enable users to accomplish tasks with the
computer. A software program is sometimes referred to as an application.
1.2- Understanding Computers
A computer is an electronic machine that can input, process, store, and output a vast amount of
information at an extremely high speed. Or A computer is an electronic machine that permits the
acquisition, treatment, storage and the restitution of information or data.
Computer science is the science for the automatic and rational treatment of information with the
use of a computer.
1.3 Information processing cycle
 Input
 Processing
 Output
 Storage
In some of the events, certain sub-events can also be added. Without wasting any more time we
will turn towards the information processing cycle in detail.

 Input - In this step the input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form
will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic computers are used, the
input data could be recorded on any one of several types of input medium, such as magnetic
disks, tapes and so on.
 Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. For
example, pay-checks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month
may be calculated from the sales orders.
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 Output - Here the result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particular form of
the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for
employees.
 Storage- After the data has been processed, along with the output to the user, the data is also
stored. Different computer storage devices can be used for the same. Some of the commonly
used data storage methods are disk storage, tertiary storage, etc. Storing the data also serves
another purpose. You will not have to repeat the entire cycle again. Often the storage is done in
both digital as well as hard copy format. At the same time, backup of the digital format is also
maintained, which can be retrieved in case of system crash.

1.5 Classification of computers by generation

There are five generations of computers that have been developed. These are:
1. First generation (1940-56)
2. Second Generation (1956-65)
3. Third Generation (1965-71)
4. Fourth generation (1971-latest)
5. Fifth Generation (under development)

1. First Generation Digital Computers (1940-56): Computers in the first generation were developed between
1940 and 1956. During this period, vacuum tubes were used for the main memory of these computers. Punch
cards were used for secondary storage of data and information. Originally, they were the size of a large room,
consuming very high power and produced large amount of heat.

Thus computers were referred to as machines „designed for calculating‟. Electronic Numeric Integrator Automatic
Computer (ENIAC), Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer (EDSAC), and Universal Automatic Computer
(UNIVAC-1), are some of the general-purpose computers developed during this time.

2. Second Generation Digital Computers (1959-65): This generation of computers were developed between
1956 and 1965. The invention of transistors (1947) and magnetic disks memory marked the start of the
second generation. These transistors took the place of the vacuum tubes used in the first generation computers
while magnetic memory replaced punch cards
3. 3Third Generation Digital Computers (1965-1971): During this period, Silicon chips were used to house or
embed Integrated Circuitry (IC) that formed the computer memory. The circuit replaced transistor, making
computer smaller, faster and more reliable than the predecessors. The storage medium was magnetic disk.
4. 4. Fourth Generation of computers (1971-latest): They are the modern day computers. The Size started to
go down with the improvement in the integrated circuits. These computers were the first electronic computers
that used Large-Scale Integrated circuits (LSIC).

5. Fifth Generation (under development): The period of the fifth generation started from 1991 and runs into the
future.
 Characterized by further miniaturisation of integrated circuits (Very Large Scale integration, or VLSI).
 Use of artificial intelligence and expert systems.
 Increased use of logic-oriented programming languages like PROLOG and LISP to deal with problems that
require judgement and expertise.
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1.6 Classification by sizes

In this classification, computers are classified according to size (not physical, size but in terms of speed, capacity and
other functions). The four categories are:
1) Mainframe computers
2) Super computers
3) Minicomputers
4) Microcomputers

1. Mainframe computers: Mainframe computers are larger and more powerful than minicomputers. As with a
minicomputer, one mainframe computer perform processing task for multiple users on terminal. However, the
mainframe can handle many hundreds of users than a minicomputer.
2. Super computer: The super computers are generally referred to as the most powerful among all the computers
that can process huge amounts of data. Super computers contain many processors and used parallel processing.

Supercomputers are used by universities, government agencies, and large businesses.

Mainframe Computer
Minicomputer Super Computer
Fig 1.3: Computers according to sizes

3. Minicomputers: also called mid-range computers bearing the size of a refrigerator. It is bigger than
microcomputer but much smaller, less expensive, and less powerful than mainframe. Unlike most
microcomputers, they can have multiples input and output devices so that more than one user can work
simultaneously.
4. Microcomputers (Personal computers or PC): The computers you use in a school lab, at business places,
and offices are technically classified as microcomputers and sometimes referred to as personal computers
(PCs).

Computers, in terms of their size and power, are generally classified into three types:
• Micro- or personal computers (PCs)
• Mainframes
• Mini computers
• Supercomputers
 Personal computers: A personal computer (like the IBM PC) is designed for use by one person
at a time. These computers are also called microcomputers because they are smaller than the larger
systems used by most businesses. Desktop units, lap-tops, notebooks, and tablets are all considered to
be personal computers. In addition, personal digital assistants (PDAs), handheld computers, and cell
phones that contain common computer applications, are all examples of personal computers.
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- A laptop is a compact personal computer with all the devices shrunk into one container to make the
computer easily portable. The general term device in computer science refers to any hardware
component. Thus, a laptop is any computer where all the hardware is inside a single, readily carried
container.
- A workstation is also a computer designed for use by one person at a time, but it is connected to a
network a set of computers connected together to share data.
- A server is a computer on a network that provides a service to other computers.
A client is a computer that uses a server for some service. An example of the client-server
relationship is an automated teller machine. The ATM is a computer, but all it really knows is how
much money it has left inside of it.

Laptop Computer Tablet Computer

Desktop Computer System Handheld

Figure 1.4: Computers according to sizes - Microcomputers

1.7 Classification by purpose

1.3- Classifications of computers by purpose
Digital computers may be utilized for either special or general purposes.
 General-Purpose Computers: These machines have the capability of dealing with variety of
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different problems, and are able to act in response to programs created to meet different needs. A
general-purpose computer is one that has the ability to store different programs of instruction and
thus to perform a variety of operations.
 Special-Purpose Computers: as the name implies, is designed to perform one specific tasks.
The program of instructions is built into, or permanently stored in the machine. Specialization
results in the given task being performed very quickly and efficiently. Most special purpose
computers have the capability of performing just one task. They are frequently referred to us
"dedicated," because of their limitations to the specific task at hand.
1.8 Classification by types
 Analog Computers
Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers represent variables by
physical quantities. Thus an analog computer measures continuously. Analog computers are very much
speedy. They produce their results very fast. But their results are approximately correct. All the analog
computers are special purpose computers.
 Digital Computers
Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or numbers. These
numbers are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also make logical decision to reach a
conclusion, depending on, the data they receive from the user.
 Hybrid Computers
Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog characteristics
combining the advantages of analog and digital computers when working as a system. Hybrid computers
are being used extensively in process control system where it is necessary to have a close representation
with the physical world.
1.4- Characteristic of a Computer
Basic characteristics about computer are:
 Speed: - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations
that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform
millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
 Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7 determines on the basis of the design of
computer. The errors in computer are due to human and incorrect data.
 Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for
hours without creating any error.
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 Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use
your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management
or to prepare electric bills.
 Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or
data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of
years.
 No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the
user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy.
 No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it
does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.
 Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You
can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your
computer and can be carried to other computers.
1.10 Computer shopping strategies (Which computer should you buy?)
Suppose that you decide to buy a computer. The following will be some features you will want to know about
a computer before making your selection:
 Does the microprocessor affect the price of a computer? This will depend on the processor
manufacturer, processor model, speed, and cache capacity.
 The amount of RAM: this will depend on the operating system and the application software you plan to
use.
 The type, speed and capacity of the hard disk drive.
 Which input devices do you need for your operations? Type of pointing devices etc.
 CD/DVD drives speed.
 Which output devices do you need for your operations? Display type (LCD/CRT), display resolution etc.
 Do you need expansion cards? Modem speed, sound card model, graphic card model etc.
 Number and type of expansion slots
 Number and type of expansion ports
 Operating system version
Generally, when buying a computer, a more expensive computer will tend to have faster processor, more
RAM, high capacity hard disk drives. Take a look at a microcomputer product line that provides a good
variety of choices at several price points.
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CHAPTER TWO
COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS
2.1 Introduction
Modern computer technology requires an understanding of both hardware and software, as the
interaction between the two offers a framework for mastering the fundamentals of computing.

2.2 The Computer System

The computer system is made up of hardware and software components and is capable of:
o Data input - using input devices.
o Data processing - using a microprocessor, typically the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
o Data output - using output devices.
It may also be capable of:
o Data storage - so data can be stored for later use.
o Data transmission - so data can be transferred to or from another computer system.
The diagram below gives some examples of these different types of device. The arrows show how
data can be transferred between them in a computer system.

Fig 2.1: Different types of devices

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2.3 The System Unit

Though a PC comes in many different forms, a typical personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a
tower shape (desktop), called the system unit, containing components such as circuit boards, the
processing unit, power supply unit, storage devices, few wires and cables (that connect storage devices to
the mother board) etc.

2.4 Front of the System Unit

Lights: Your unit may display a variety of coloured lights on the front panel including power and turbo
signals, and light to indicate if the hard or floppy disk are being read or written to.
Key Lock: You can stop intruders tampering with your PC by using the Lock on the front panel. Turning the
key prevents the keyboard from working.
Turbo Button: some PCs offer a choice of speeds at which they can run. A turbo switch is usually left so
the computer runs at its fastest speed.
Reset Button: If your computer “freezes” and won‟t respond to any command, try starting it again using the
restart button. Pressing the restart button loses all the work you haven‟t saved that session, so use it only as
a last resort.
Power On/Off: all PCs have main power switch on the system unit. Sometimes this control is placed on the
outside back panel.
Floppy Disk Drive: Either or both of two standard types of floppy disk drive may be found at the front of the
system unit. Some systems also have internal CD-ROM or tape drive.

2.5 Back (rear view) of the System Unit

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Fan housing: The electronic components in your PC generate a lot of heat. To prevent overheating, a fan at
the back of the unit removes hot air from the system.
Power “in” and “out” Sockets: Cables plugged into these sockets carry power from the electrical outlet to
the system unit and from the system unit to the monitor.
Joystick Port: Using a joystick is often much better than pressing keys to control movements when playing
a computer game.
Serial Ports; Serial ports often connect the PC to modem or mouse. Most PCs are fitted with two serial
ports that may be labelled “S101” and “S102”, “Serial 1” and “Serial 2”, or “COM 1”and”COM 2”.
Sound Jacks: If you have a sound fitted inside your system unit, you will see a jack of jacks at the back.
These can be used to connect your PC to speakers, a microphone, or an external sound source.
Keyboard Port: The cable from your keyboards ends with a round connector, which plugs into the keyboard
port.
Network Adapter: If an expansion card is fitted to link your PCs in your office you will see a network
connector at the back of the system unit.
Monitor Port: A cable from your monitor plugs into this port and carries display information to the monitor.
Bars for Expansion Cards: PCs are easily expanded perhaps to provide a modem, sound or faster
graphics. You can plug cards into expansion slots inside PC. The end of an expansion card shows at the
back of your machine, allowing you to connect items.

2.6 Inside of the System Unit

The brain behind everything that happens in your PC is contained within the system unit. Inside the unit are
the impressive electronics that run programs, handle instructions, and determine the results.

1. Motherboard: The motherboard is the main component and the main circuit board inside the system unit.
It is a large piece of fibreglass rectangular in sharp with integrated circuitry that connects the rest of the parts
of the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives (CD, DVD, hard disk, or any others) as well as
any peripherals connected via the ports or the expansion slots.

2. Power Supply: A power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current (AC) electric power to low-voltage
DC power for the internal components of the computer. Some power supplies have a switch to change
between 240V and 115V. Other models have automatic sensors that switch input voltage automatically, or
are able to accept any voltage between those limits. In Cameroon we regulate our power supply units to our
system to 240Volt.
3. Cooling System: used to drain out the extra heat from the CPU. Equipment‟s like fans, liquid coolants
and heat sinks are used to drain the heat out which is very important for the proper functioning of the
computer.
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CHAPTER THREE
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device refers to user-computer communication devices and devices used for
communication between computers, devices and other peripherals, which may be used for input/output
(I/O) purposes, like network interface cards (NIC), modems, IR ports, RFID systems and wireless
networking devices, as well as mechanical output devices, like solenoids, motors and other
electromechanical devices.
An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another device or user.
Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in the form of audio or video. Thus, most output
devices used by humans are in these categories. Examples include monitors, projectors, speakers,
headphones and printers.

3.1- Input Devices

Following are few of the important input devices
which are used in a computer:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows:
[Link] Keys Description
Typing These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally give same
1
Keys layout as that of typewriters.
It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17
Numeric
2 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and
Keypad
calculators.
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which is arranged in a row at the
Function
3 top of the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and is used for some specific
Keys
purpose.
4 Control These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
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keys Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Special
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num
5 Purpose
Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
Keys

Mouse

Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text
into the computer.
Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a
socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for further
manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form
that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed
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Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing and
image manipulation applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone
is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a
special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading
process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it
is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand
held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image,
converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is
connected.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for
checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.
3.2- OUTPUT DEVICES
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
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Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat- Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole character,
such as the letter „e‟ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There
are some disadvantages of CRT:
 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists.
Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics
display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:
 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
Examples are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers:
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on
the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types
 Character printers
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 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of
dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a
character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed

 Poor Quality
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided
into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters,
drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different character sets available in
the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum
printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, chain of character sets is used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character
set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy
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Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers.
 They are not noisy.
 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Give good graphics quality
 Support many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
 Expensive.
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with
presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable

Disadvantages
 Expensive as cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

Dot- matrix printer Ink-jet printer Laser printer

Different Printer categories

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CHAPTER FOUR
STORAGE DEVICES
Your computer has one or more disk drives devices that store information on a metal or plastic
disk. The disk preserves the information even when your computer is turned off.
Storages units write or read informations on a magnetic or optic storage unit. The unit can be
sued to store data in a permanent manner or to recover informations from a multimedia disk. For
example the storage units, the hard disk can be installed in the case of the computer. Others that are said
to be removable can be connected to the computer through the USB port. We can distinguish: the disk
drive, the optical reader, flash reader.
4.1 Types of Storage Devices
Magnetic Storage: Perhaps the most popular form of storage for modern computer systems is the magnetic
storage. Their objectives are mostly for large storage capacity and fast data access though their speed of
access cannot be compared to that of primary storage devices. Hard disk, floppy disk, and tape storage
technologies can be classified as magnetic storage, which store data by magnetizing microscopic particles
on the disk or tape surface.
Optical Storage: CD-ROM (compact disk-read-only memory) and WORM (write once, read many), and
DVD (digital versatile disk) storage technologies can be classified as optical storage disks, which store
data as microscopic light and dark spots on the disk surface. Optical recording is an optical disk technology
that uses a laser beam to burn pits in the recording medium to represent the bits of information, and a lower-
power laser to sense the presence or absence of pits for reading. The dark spots are called pits while the
lighter and, non-pitted surface areas of the disk are called lands.
Magnetic Tape Storage: In magnetic tape units, the tape maintains physical contact with the fixed head
while in motion, allowing high-density recording. The long access times to find user data on the tape are
strictly due to the fact that all intervening data have to be searched until the desired data are found.
Solid State Storage: A device similar to hard disk, but contains no moving parts and stores data in a digital
format. For this reason, solid state storage provides faster access to data than magnetic or optical storage
technology. A variety of storage cards can be classified as solid state storage, which store data in a non-
volatile, erasable, low power chip. The chip‟s circuitry is arranged as a grid, and each cell in the grid
contains two transistors that act as gates. When the gates are open, current can flow and the cell has a
value that represents a “1” bit. When the gates are closed, the cell has a value that represents a “0” bit.
4.2 Hard disk
Hard disk is a rotating data storage disk pack which is made up of one or more disk platters in an air tide
computer drive called the hard disk drive. The hard disk platter is a flat, rigid disk made of aluminium coated
with magnetic iron oxide particles. Each platter has a read-write head which hovers over the surface to read
data.
Sector
Each surface
has its own
read-write
head. The Track
heads are
mounted on a
single spindle
so that they all
move in and
out together.

Fig.4.1 Hard disk with read-write head

 18

4.3 Floppy disk (also called 3.5 inch floppy)

They are light flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic metal oxide enclosed in a rigid plastic casing. They
are usually used for storing small quantities of data. A standard high-density disk has a storage capacity of
1.44 Megabytes. Data is copied or written on floppy using floppy disk drive and that can be exchanged
between two or more computers. Just like the hard disk, instructions are entered with the use of an input unit
in order to store data or retrieve from it.
A floppy disk has to be formatted before it can be used, and this process performs the following tasks:
 Deletes any data already on the disk
 Divides the disk into tracks and sectors – one sector holds 512bytes of data
 Sets up a root directory which lists the files on the disk and which sectors the data for which each file is
kept in
 Finds any bad or damaged sectors on the disk that cannot be used

Fig 4.2 A Standard Floppy Disk and an External Zip drive

4.4 Zip disk

A Zip disk has similar features to floppy disk but requires special disk drives and has more storage capacity.
Zip disks are available in 100MB, 250MB, and 750MB. A Zip drive is often an option on a PC, together with
a CD-ROM or DVD drive and a floppy drive. Alternatively, you can purchase an external disk drive for any of
these; they are faster than floppy disks, though are much slower than hard disk.
4.5 Compact disks (optical disks)
The surface of an optical disk is coated with a clear plastic, making the disk quite durable and less
susceptible to environmental damage than data recorded on magnetic media. A 5-in (125-mm) CD-ROM
can hold 500 to 600 megabytes, which is equivalent to 1400 to 1700 (360-kilobyte) diskettes. There are
many different types of CD drives for PC's:
 CD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a CD. This type of CD drive can only read, or
retrieve, information. New software that you purchase typically comes on a CD-ROM.
 CD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a CD. If you're going to get a
CD drive for your computer, pay a little more and get the CD-RW (rewriteable) version.
 DVD (digital versatile disc) - a popular type of removable media that is the same dimensions as a CD
but stores up to 12 times as much information. It is the most common way of transferring digital video,
and is popular for data storage.
 DVD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a DVD.
 DVD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data from and to a DVD.
 DVD-RAM Drive - a device used for rapid writing and reading of data from a special type of DVD.
 19

There are two types of CDs (the disks themselves) that are used by a CD-RW:

CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable): A disk on which you can create your
own data or audio discs that are read by most CD-ROM drives. Most CD-
R discs can be played in audio CD players, too. A black, recordable
compact disk known as WORM can be erased. They can contain music to
be used in CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives, or video for use in computers
or DVD players, or just data for use on a computer. The CD-RW CDs are
Fig. 4.3 Compact Disc much more expensive initially, but since they can be re-used many times
their cost over time is less.
DVD ("Digital Versatile Disk")
DVD is an ultra-high capacity. It has a capacity of 4.7GB. This is
the equivalent of seven CD's (or over 12,000 diskettes!). They are
up to 8 times as fast, and can be played on home DVD players as
well. They are expected to eventually replace CD-ROMs in the
market.

Fig. 4.4 Digital versatile Disc

4.6 Tape drive
This is a device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape used for long term
storage and has very large storage capacity. Tapes are relatively inexpensive and are
used almost exclusively for backup.
However, tapes are very slow and do not permit random access of data. Recording
speed is much slower than a removable hard drive. Even worse, if you're trying to
restore just a single file, it can take a maddeningly long time for the tape to wind forward
or backwards to the correct location.

Fig 4.5 Tape Drive

4.7 Flash Memory
A flash memory is a data storage device integrated with a USB interface, typically small, lightweight,
removable, and rewritable. Capacities vary, from hundreds of megabytes (in the same ballpark as CDs) to
tens of gigabytes. They are faster than magnetic storage.

Fig 4.6 Flash Memory

4.8 RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAMS are small circuit boards that are plug into the motherboard within the computer‟s system unit. RAM is
an active, electronic state. When the power is on, RAM retains data. When the computer is turned off, all
data in RAM is erased unless you have saved it to some mass storage device. Each time the computer
boots, the computer goes through its start-up routine and lastly loads operating system instructions into
RAM.
There basically three types of RAM: Dynamic, Static and Cache.
 20

DRAM (Dynamic RAM): This is the most common type of computer memory. DRAM needs refreshing and
is refreshed hundreds of times each second in order to retain data. It is used for
most system memories because it is cheap and small. The capacity of DRAM is
usually larger than that of SRAM but its access time is much more less.
SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM is approximately 5 times faster (and twice as
expensive, as DRAM). It does not have to be constantly refreshed.
CACHE RAM is a small block of high-speed memory located between the
Processor and main memory and is used to store frequently requested data and
instructions. When the processor requests data, it will check in the cache first
4.9 ROM (Read Only Memory)
Fig. 4.7 Random access
This is a solid state memory device on which data or programs are stored
memory
permanently. ROM is used to store the basic set of instructions called the
BIOS (Basic Input, Output System) that the computer needs to run when it is first turned on. This
information is permanently stored on the computer chips, in the form of hardware electronic circuitry. Various
types of ROM chips are:
MROM (Mask Read-Only Memory): It is a kind of ROM whose contents are programmed by the chip
manufacturer rather than the user. Thus the content of MROM, is usually programmed during
manufacturing, is permanent and cannot be modified.
PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory): Like ROMs, PROMs are read-only memory, non-volatile and
are used to store some programmes. The difference between both chips is that ROM chips are programmed
at the time of manufacturing whereas PROM chips are supplied without any program. Users can program
PROM chips once and after that these work like the ROM chips.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a PROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed using an electrical charge. Like ROM chips, this memory is non-volatile. EEPROM is often
used to store information for the computer's BIOS.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is a memory chip that can be read from but not
stored to. However, if exposed to ultraviolet light can be reprogrammed if needed. Hardware
manufacturers use EPROM when it may be needed that the data contained on the EPROM needs to be
changed.
4.10 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The microprocessor is the heart of any normal computer, whether it is a desktop machine, a server, Mobile
phones, DVD players, washing machines or a laptop. A microprocessor - also known as central processing
unit (CPU) - is a complete computation engine that is fabricated on a single chip. The first microprocessor
was the Intel 4004, introduced in 1971. The Intel4004 was not very powerful - all it could do was add and
subtract, and it could only do that using 4 bits at a time. But it was amazing that everything was on one chip.
The latest Pentium processors run over ten times faster than the intel4004.

Fig. 4.8 Intel Pentium 4 CPU

 21

CHAPTER FIVE
DATA TRANSFER
5.1 Computer buses
These are flat cables with numerous parallel wires over which data flows between two or more devices.
Several bits of data transmit along the buses, namely the system buses and the local buses. The system
bus of a microcomputer connects all components of the system. The local bus is any bus that runs a direct
path between a peripheral device and the processor. Examples of computer buses are:
 ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) bus.
 MCA (Micro Channel Architecture) bus.
 VERSA (Video Electronic Standard Association) bus.
 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) bus.
 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

5.2 Expansion slots

Expansion slots are sockets into which expansion cards can be plugged in to
the computer. The sockets are usually connected to buses. Internal buses connect
the CPU to the various internal components and to expansion cards for graphics
and sound. External Bus Controllers support ports for external peripherals. Some
commonly used expansion slots in PCs are:
 ISA (Industry Standard Architecture): Older versions of slots for
relatively slow devices.
 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect): Fast transfer speeds and an
orbit data bus, holds graphic card, sound card video card etc.
 AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port): Used for graphic cards and faster than
Fig. 5.1 Expansion slots PCI and ISA slots. Provide high speed data particularly for 3D graphics.
Others are SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) slot and VERSA (Video
Electronic Standard Association) slots. SCSI slots allow users to connect a wide variety of devices like
CD-ROM drive, printer, and scanner.
5.3 Expansion cards
Expansion cards are small circuit boards that can be put into slots on the mother board to add functionality
to a computer system. A PCMIA slot (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) is a
special type of expansion slot developed for notebook computers. A PCMCIA card is also called “PC card”.
The most commonly used expansion cards are;-
1. A video card, video adapter, graphics accelerator card, display adapter, or graphics card is an
expansion card whose function is to generate output images to a display. It allows users to view text or
graphics of the monitor (also known as VGA card).
2. Input/output cards: Printers and sometimes mice are plugged into. In modern computers their
component are included on the motherboard.
3. Controller cards: All disk drive are connected into a controller card. Controllers: Circuitry that is
responsible for managing transmission of data from the computer to the floppy drive, hard disk drive
and vice-versa.
4. Sound cards: They are cards that enable the computer to produce audio signals such as music. The
speakers and microphones are plugged into this card. Sound cards convert the digital data in a sound
file into analogue signals for instruments, vocal, and spoken sounds. In addition, sound cards let you
make your own recordings by converting analogue sounds into digitized sound files that you can be
stored on disk.
5. Modem cards: Connect to other computer via phone line. The most familiar example is a voice band
modem that turns the digital data of a personal computer into modulated electrical signals in the voice
 22

frequency range of a telephone channel. These signals can be transmitted over telephone lines and
demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.
6. Interface card: Allows user to connect components to others outside of their PCs.
7. Video capture cards: Connect a camcorder to your computer in order to capture images to your P.C.
8. TV cards: Allows you to watch Television programs on your P.C. Most TV tuners also function as video
capture cards, allowing them to record television programs onto a hard disk.
9. A network interface controller (also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN
adapter) allows a computer to communicate with another computer.
10. Fire wire cards: Allows you to capture digital video signals into your P.C.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 5.2 (a) Video card (b) Sound Card (c) NIC

5.4 Expansion ports and cables

A computer port is a piece of hardware used for accepting data from or sending data to a computer system.
Most ports are located at the backside of your system unit and are used for connection to other devices. E.g.
keyboard port, mouse port, modem port, monitor port, SCSI port, microphone and earphone ports, parallel
port, serial port, USB (Universal Serial Bus) port.

Serial:
Serial The slowest.
Transmits information one bit at a time.

Parallel:
8 times faster.
Parallel
Transmits information 8 bits at a time (see
how much wider it is).

USB (Universal Serial Bus):

Much, much faster.
USB
Can be plugged in / unplugged without
having to turn off the computer first.

Figure 5.3 These are the major types of connections between a computer and a peripheral.

5.6 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

A UPS is commonly used for regulating the power input to the computer. It also
provides emergency power to the system when the input power source fails. This is
done by the use of an attached battery and associated with an electronic circuitry.
The on-battery runtime of most UPSs is relatively short, 5 -15minutes. This short

Fig. 5.4 UPS

 23

supply of power allows time for users to properly shut down and protect the equipment.

CHAPTER SIX
MICROPROCESSORS AND MEMORY

The two main components of microcomputers are the microprocessor, a silicon chip designed to
manipulate data, and the memory, which stores instructions and data. The microprocessor which is located
on the main circuit board inside the computer is the most important, and usually the most expensive
component of a computer.
6.1 Microprocessor
The CPU of a microcomputer which is referred to as the microprocessor (or simply processor), is an
integrated circuit (an electronic component called a chip) that executes instructions to process data, i.e. the
CPU is the “brain” of the computer, the place where data is manipulated. It retrieves instructions and data
from the RAM, processes those instructions, and then places the results back into RAM so that it can be
displayed and stored.

To perform specific tasks or to process data, the CPU has three main components: the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU), the control unit, the memory (or central memory).
1 The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): The ALU does all the arithmetic and logical operations needed
for the computer to solve a particular problem. The ALU can perform two sorts of operations on data.
Arithmetic operations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; and Logical
operations which are comparisons of two numbers to determine whether one is equal to, greater than
or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?"). Logical operations allow us to choose alternatives
based on whether or not a given condition is true (Boolean truth values).
The ALU uses registers to hold data that is being processed. The result of an arithmetic or logic
operation is placed on the accumulator. From the accumulator, the data can be sent to the RAM or
used for further processing.

2 The control unit: We can think of the control unit as the manager of the computer. Its main job is to
direct or coordinate processing (we say „execute‟ the instructions which have been stored in memory). It
reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into a series of control
signals which activate other parts of the computer. These signals are expressed in microcode – a
series of basic directions that tell the CPU how to execute more complex operations. The actual set of
operations which the CPU can perform is called the CPU‟s instruction set. The control unit directs the
movement of data from the RAM to the ALU unit through the data buses.
The control unit operates by repeating three operations: fetch the instructions that reside in the
computer‟s main memory or RAM, decode by the control unit (decoding), and finally carry out the
required action (called execution). This makes a machine cycle. After the completion of execution of
the current instruction, the next instruction is then fetched from the memory, and the machine cycle
repeats. To summarize these steps:
i. Fetch the instruction- cause the next instruction to be fetched from the main memory;
ii. Decode the program instruction - translate the program instruction into commands that the computer
can process;
iii. Execute the instruction– cause the instruction to be executed;
iv. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter or sequence control register. The CPU
contains a special set of memory cells called registers that instructions can be read and written to, much
 24

more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers
depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid
having to access main memory every time data is needed, as data is constantly being worked on, thereby
reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units). This
greatly increases the computer's speed.
The program counter controls the order in which the instructions are done. It contains the address of the
next instruction in the computer program. When instruction has been fetched from memory, the program
counter is increased by 1. It is then ready to find the next instruction. The instruction register stores a copy
of the instruction being processed. The instruction decoder then decodes the instruction and sends signals
to the control switches in the computer.
6.2 Memory
The term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word storage is used for
memory that exists on tapes or disks. Moreover, the term memory is usually used as shorthand for physical
memory, which refers to the actual chips capable of holding data. The computer uses main memory first
because this is thousands of times faster than the secondary memory. There are basically several different
types of memory: Random Access Memory (RAM), Read0-Only Memory (ROM).
1. RAM (Random Access Memory): This is the same as main memory. When used by itself, the term RAM
refers to read and write memory; that is, you can both write data into RAM and read data from RAM. This is
in contrast to ROM, which permits you only to read data. RAM is volatile, which means that it requires a
steady flow of electricity to maintain its contents. As soon as the power is turned off, whatever data was in
RAM is lost. The RAM chip holds the data temporally that is being processed e.g. When you type a
document using MS Word, both the program and the characters you type are usually held in the RAM while
you are working on it. If you accidentally switch off the computer, or there is a power cut while you are
working, you will lose the document if you have not saved it and when you restart the computer, you will
have to reload Word again. This is why it is important to save document onto a secondary storage device.
2. ROM (Read Only Memory): Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-only memory that
holds instructions for starting up the computer. Unlike RAM, ROM cannot be written to. Information can only
be read from it. No further information can be written on it because all instructions held in ROM have to be
burned into the memory chip before it leaves the factory. ROM is used to store the basic set of information
called the BIOS (Basic Input, Output System) that the computer needs to run when it is first turned on.
This information is permanently stored on the computer chips, in the form of hardware electronic circuitry.
Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software.
3. Virtual Memory: Some computers also use virtual memory, which expands physical memory onto a hard
disk. An imaginary memory area supported by some operating systems (for example, Windows but not
DOS) in conjunction with the hardware. Virtual memory is when your computer does not have enough RAM
to run several programs at once, and then your computer operating system stimulates an extension RAM on
the hard disk.
4. CMOS Memory: CMOS is short for Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor. CMOS is an on-
board semiconductor chip powered by a CMOS battery inside computers that stores computer system
configuration setting such as the date and time, hard disk capacity, number of floppy disks and RAM
capacity. It is powered by a battery.
5. Flash memory: This is a solid non-volatile rewritable memory that returns its data when the power is
removed. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off
but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is
restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary. The flash memory has the immunity to save
shock and vibration. They range in capacity from a few kilobytes. Some flash memory include the secure
digital card (SD card), compact flash card (CF card) and the multimedia card (MM card).
6.3 Factors that Affect Microprocessor Performance
Whatever the computer can do, a human being given enough time, patience and erasers, can. Computer
has affected the human life very much, because it can do a variety of tasks easily, which men cannot do
easily. The computer‟s superiority lies in speed, accuracy, reliability and storage capacity.
 25

6.3.1 Clock Rate: Computer performance is often described in terms of clock speed (usually in megahertz
(MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). This refers to the cycles per a second (the time to complete an instruction cycle)
of the main clock of the CPU. A specification such as 2.8 GHz means that the microprocessor‟s clock
operates at a speed of 2.8 billion cycles per second. All being equal, a computer with 2.8 GHz processor is
faster than a computer with a 1.5 GHz processor or a 933 MHz processor. However, this metric is somewhat
misleading, as a machine with a higher clock rate may not necessarily have higher performance. As a result
manufacturers have moved away from clock speed as a measure of performance.
6.3.2 Cache: Computer performance can also be measured with the amount of cache (some time called
“RAM cache”) a processor has. RAM cache is special high-speed memory that gives the CPU more rapid
access to data. A very fast CPU can execute an instruction so quickly that it often must wait for it to be
delivered from RAM, which slows processing. The cache ensures that data is immediately available
whenever the CPU requests it. The higher the clock speed, and the greater the cache, the faster the
processor runs.
6.3.3 Word size: This is the number of bits that the CPU can manipulate at one time. Word size is based on
the size of the registers in the CPU and the number of data lines in the bus. For example a CPU with an 8-
bits word size is referred to as an 8-bit processor. It has 8-bits registers and manipulates 8-bits at a time.
Computer with a large word size can process more data in each instruction cycle than a computer with a
small word size. For example, the first microcomputers contained 8-bit microprocessors, but today‟s faster
computers contain 32- or 64-bit microprocessor.
6.3.4 Multi-core processors: Modern CPUs can execute multiple instructions per clock cycle, which
dramatically speeds up the program. Processing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core
processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called cores in this sense) into
one integrated circuit. Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core
processor.
6.4 Units of Storage for Computer Memory
The size of a computer‟s memory is the number of units of storage it contains. The larger the computer‟s
memory, the more expensive the computer will be. Storage media capacity is expressed in units as a
quantity of bits, nibbles, bytes and words. Thus you may hear that a certain computer has 32Kbytes of
storage. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). A
computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern
computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The bit is the smallest unit of storage which is abbreviated as a lowercase “b“. It contains a single piece of
binary data that may be 0 or 1; true or false; positive or negative etc. A byte on the other hand is composed
of eight bits, and usually abbreviated as an uppercase “B”. A "byte" is nothing more than a character (a
letter, number or symbol)

Table 1.1 below shows data size destination

NAME UNITS
Nibble 4bits
Byte 8 bits (1 character)
Half word 16bits (2bytes)
Word 32bits (4bytes)
Long word 64bits (8bytes)
Quad word 128bits (16bytes)
Octa word 256bits (32bytes)
Difference between Kilometre, Kilogram and Kilobyte
Kilo is a prefix 1000 (103) times a particular unit. For example, kilogram is equal to 1000 grams. Kilometre is
equal to 1000 metres, in computer-related terms, kilo is a prefix meaning 210 (1024) times a particular
memory unit. For example, kilobyte is a data unit equal to 1024 bytes, written as KB or Kilobyte.
 26

Factor Name Symbol Value

3
10 Kilometre Km 1000
3
10 Kilogram Kg 1000
210 Kilobyte KB 1024
The meaning of the prefixes Kilo-, Mega-, and Giga
The distinction between Kilobyte, Megabyte, and Gigabyte is that kilo represents about a thousand; mega
represents about a million and giga about a billion. They are represented with the symbols K, M, G as in
Kbytes, Mbytes and Gbytes. If we go back to our base2 mathematics, we would have the following values:

Factor Name Symbol Value

Kilo K 210 1024
Mega M 220 1,048,576
Giga G 230 1,073,741,824
Tera T 240 1,099,511,627,776
From the above table we can deduce as follows;
8bits = 1 byte
1024bytes = 1Kilobyte (KB)
1024Kilobytes = 1Megabyte (MB)
1024Megabytes = 1Gigabyte (GB)
1024Gigabytes = 1Terabyte (TB)
Therefore, 1MB = 1024 x 1024 Bytes = 1048576Bytes
1GB = 1024 x 1024 x 1024 Bytes = 1,073,741,824Bytes
1TB = 1024 x 1024 x 1024 Bytes = 1,099,511,627,776Bytes
Example 1: How many bytes are equivalent to 2 kilobytes?
Solution: Let our unknown be X
1024 B = 1KB
X B = 2KB
Cross multiplying, we get,
X = 2(1024) B
= 2048 B
Example 2: If the capacity of a hard disk is 575 KB, what is the maximum number of characters in the data it can
stock?
Solution: Let an unknown be X
1024 B = 1KB
X B = 575KB
Cross multiplying, we get,
X = 575 x (1024) B
= 588800 B which is equivalent to 588800 characters
Example 3: Convert 256 MB to Bytes.
Solution: Let are unknown be X
(1024 x 1024) B = 1MB
X B = 256 MB
Cross multiplying, we get,
X = 256(1024 X 1024)B
= 268435456 B
Example 4: Convert 268435456 B to MB.
Solution: Let are unknown be X
(1024 x 1024) B = 1MB
268435456 B = X MB
Cross multiplying, we get,
X(1024 X 1024) = 268435456 B
= 268435456/1048576 MB
= 256 MB
 27

6.5 Some definitions in Data Storage

Data transfer: Movement of data from one storage medium to computer memory.
Data compression: The process of condensing data so that it requires fewer bytes of storage space.
Data transfer rate: The speed at which data can be transferred between the storage medium and computer
memory. Transfer rates are expressed in bits per second (bps).
Data transport: Data travels from one location to another within the computer on an electrical pathway or circuit
called a data bus. The data bus is a series of circuits that connect the various electrical components on the
motherboard. The bus contains data lines and address lines. Data lines carry the signals that represent data.
Address lines carry the signals that specify where the computer can find the data that it is supposes to process.

CHAPTER SEVEN
INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE CONCEPTS
7.1 Introduction
Software are electronic instructions that tell the computer what to do. Software indicate how a user interacts
with a computer, and specify how to process data, such as document production, video editing, graphic
design or web browsing. These instructions are stored in digital format and can be distributed on floppy
disks, DVDs, CDs, and also as web download.
7.2. Classification of Software
Computer software are classified in two major categories, system software and application software.
Both categories are further classified into subcategories.
Software

System Application
Software Software

Operating Device Utility Programming Connectivity Productivity

System drivers programs languages Software
Software

Fig. 71 Software categorization

7.2.1 System Software:

System software is a set of programs that controls and coordinates hardware and operations in the
computer and its devices. It is the function of the system software to manage all the system resources. They
are typically responsible for the displaying of information on the screen, storing data on disks, sending data
to the printer, interpreting commands typed by the users, etc. Examples of system software are operating
system, device drivers, computer programming languages, utility software.
[Link] Operating System (O.S.): This is the most important software that runs on a computer. When you
power on your computer, the computer starts booting. At the end of that process, the operating system
loads. From this point the operating system begins to do its job of controlling the way in which the computer
functions. An operating system is therefore defined as system software which provides a user interface
and controls and manages all hardware and software operations in a computer system, such as memory
and disk storage space.
Basically, the operating system serves as the boss, or manager, and makes sure all the various parts of the
computer get what they need. Without an operating system a computer is useless. The operating system
performs many essential tasks for your computer. Some of these tasks include;
 28

1. Device management: instructing the computer to use different peripheral devices, such as keyboard,
display, printer, external communication device, etc.
2. File management: creating, moving, copying, merging and deleting files on disk or other auxiliary
storage.
3. Running applications: calling up package such as MS Word or MS Excel so that the user can interact
with them directly.
4. Running programming languages: involving a language editor, so that the user creates new
programs.
Operating systems could be classified into two categories; Server operating system and Client Operating
System.
1. Server Operating System or Network Operating System: Server operating system, provide storage
facilities and communication services for networks and Web sites. Communication allows sharing data,
programs, and peripheral devices.
2. Client Operating System or Desktop Operating System: Designed for personal computers and can
only accommodate a single user at a time.
Millions of computer
users interact with
desktop O.S. The
computers that
provide centralized
storage and
communicate with
local area networks
and Internet sites
typically use a server
operating system
rather than a desktop
O.S.

Fig. 7.2 Server O.S.

Types of Operating Systems

The three most commonly used operating systems for personal computers are Microsoft Windows, Apple
Mac OS X, and Linux. Each of these operating systems uses a graphical user interface (GUI, sometimes
pronounced gooey,). Instead of typing a command each time you want the computer to perform a task, you
can use graphical icons and click-options on the GUI to instruct the computer to perform that task. For
example, if you want your computer to open the browser, Internet Explorer, simply double-click the Internet
Explorer icon on the desktop, or select it from the start menu. Let‟s take a look at the graphical user
interfaces of three popular operating systems.
1. Microsoft Windows: Like other GUIs, window provides icons, buttons, and click-options for user
interaction. Because Microsoft window supports most application software and peripheral devices, it has
become the most popularly used operating system. Before the introduction of Window 95 in 1995, there
existed previous versions like Window 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 3.1. These previous versions of Windows use DOS
as the operating system while adding a graphical user interface that will do multitasking. Multitasking allows
users to work on more than one project (Windows) at a time.
Windows Vista was released on November 30, 2006 to business customers, consumer versions following
on January 30, 2007. Windows Vista intended to have enhanced security by introducing a new restricted
user mode called User Account Controlling.
2. MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System): MS-DOS was the first operating system released by
Microsoft® and was introduced on the IBM PC. Users typed commands on screen with no pictures, no
sound, no mouse, and on black and white.
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3. Mac O.S (Macintosh Operating System): The Macintosh or Mac is a series of several lines of personal
computers designed, developed, and marketed by Apple Inc. The first Macintosh computer was introduced
on January 24, 1984; it was the first commercially successful personal computer to feature a mouse and a
graphical user interface rather than a command-line interface.
4. UNIX: UNIX operating systems are widely used in servers, workstations, and mobile devices. The UNIX
environment and the client–server program model were essential elements in the development of the
Internet and the reshaping of computing as cantered in networks rather than in individual computers.
5. Linux: Linux is an open source, or free operating system; typically all the underlying source code can be
used, freely modified, and redistributed, both commercially and non-commercially.
[Link] Utility programs
These are system software designed for performing tasks related to managing system and use of
hardware resources (i.e. disk drives and printers) and file capabilities (i.e. sorting and copying files).
Some Utility software perform tasks such as preparing disk to hold data. Most major operating systems
come with several pre-installed utilities.
1. Disk management programs: These involve formatting and decrementing of disk. Formatting is the
process of dividing a disk into sectors so that it can be used to store information and decrementing is
the process of rearranging files on a disk in an orderly manner.
2. Memory management software: Handles location in the RAM where programs put their current data.
3. Data recovery program: Used to recover deleted files.
4. Backup program: Utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the
entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
5. Data compression program: Utility that reduces or condenses data so that it requires fewer bytes of
storage space.
6. Disk checkers: Can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in some
way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficient operating hard drive.
7. Disk defragmenters: Can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several locations on
the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
[Link] Device Drivers: In computing, a device driver or driver software is system software that allows the
computer control a peripheral device. This is why sometimes when you install a new peripheral device such
as a scanner, printer, etc., your system will ask you to install more software called a driver. The device driver
will need to tell your computer how to use the new device. The device driver translates commands from the
operating system or from user into commands understood by the component computer part it interfaces
with. It also translates responses from the component computer part back to responses that can be
understood by the operating system, application program, or user.

[Link] Computer Programming Languages

When a computer programmer writes a program, the instructions are translated into electrical signals that
the computer can manipulate and process. For a programmer to write this program, he needs a computer
programming language software such as Basic, COBOL, Visual Basic, C, C++ or Java.
7.2.2 Application Software
Application software are computer programs or packages (groups of programs) designed to enable the
computer to perform a specific task, such as writing a letter. Common examples include;
 Word processing software,
 Spreadsheet software,
 Database management software (DABMS),
 Presentation software,
 Computer-aided design(CAD) software,
 Desktop publishing software,
 Accounting software,
 Paint and image editing software,
 Video and audio editing software,
 30

 Multimedia authoring software,

 Web page authoring software,
 Educational software, etc.
Application software may be bundled with the computer and its system software, or may be published
separately. Many application software deal principally with documents, such as word processing, Electronic
spreadsheet. Application software help humans carry out tasks. There are many types of application
packages which end users want computer to do.
Application software are classified into the following categories; Productivity Software or specific software
and Connectivity Software or communication software.
[Link] Productivity Software
These are computer programs that help users work more creatively and efficiently. It is designed to be used
by businesses, or organizations, e.g. word processing, spread sheet, and database management programs,
integrated packages. Some productivity packages include:
1. Word Processing Software: A word processing program (also called a word processor) provides tools
for creating all kinds of text-based documents. Word processors are not limited to working with text, as is the
typewriter; they enable you to add images to your documents and design documents that look like products
of a professional print shop. Using a word processor, you can create long documents with separate
chapters, table of contents, an index, and other features. Word processing gives you the ability to create,
edit, spell check and format a document on the screen before you can print.
A word processor can enhance documents in other ways; you can embed sounds, video clips, and
animations into them. You can link different documents together – e.g. link a chart from a spreadsheet into a
word processing report – to create complex documents that update themselves automatically. Word
processors can even create documents for publishing on the World Wide Web, complete with hyperlink text
and graphics.
The most popular word processing software includes Microsoft Word, Corel, Word Perfect.
2. Electronic Spreadsheet Software: Spread sheet can be defined as a worksheet containing rows and
columns that can manipulate, analyze and calculate numerical data and display the results. Electronic
spreadsheet or spreadsheet software is software for creating electronic worksheets that hold data in cells
and perform calculations based on that data. It is frequently used by,
1. financial analysts
2. managers to create budgets
3. educators to create records of students record (grades) and
4. Individuals to balance checkbooks, etc.
Examples of Spreadsheet software include Microsoft Excel and Lotus. Spreadsheet software also helps
users to transform complex data into meaningful graphs.
3. Desktop Publishing Software: Documents with many graphics should be created with Desktop
publishing software instead of Word processing software. Desktop publishing software use graphic design
technique to enhance the format and appearance of a document. DPS are today are mostly used to produce
newspapers, new letters, magazines, and books, etc.
4. Graphic Software: This software helps users to create, edit and manipulates images such as
photographs, animated cartoons, drawings that could be inserted into a document, etc. Some graphic
software include Adobe illustrator, Corel DRAW. Many graphic software packages specialize in manipulating
one type of image, such as photos, bitmap images, vector graphics, 3-D objects. Photos are generally,
bitmap and can be manipulated and edited using paint software. Image composed of lines and filled shapes
are called vector graphic. Vector graphics require relatively small storage space and are ideal for diagrams,
logos and schematics. Meanwhile, 3-D graphics software creates a wireframe that represents three-
dimensional object.
6. Presentation Software: Presentation software provides all the tools for combining text, graphics,
animation and sound into a series of electronic slides. Examples of Presentation software packages are
Microsoft PowerPoint and Lotus Freelance Graphics and which also include collections of graphics and
sounds. The output could be viewed during a lecture or a conference using a computer projector device.
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9. Database Management Software: A database is an organised collection of related data on a certain

topic or for a particular purpose. A database can contain any sort of data, such as a store inventory, an
address book. Database management system is software that helps us to enter, manipulate, organize, store,
update, retrieve and report information. Examples of such software used for personal computers are
Microsoft access, FileMaker. Oracle is server database software. Database is more frequently used in
business, government, and education rather than by individuals.
10. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) - Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided design
and drafting (CADD), is the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or
optimization of a structural design. Examples: 2D Design, AutoCAD. Facilities include: various drawing and
editing tools and ability to scale accurately, sometimes in three dimensions and with ability to rotate in any
direction.
[Link] Connectivity Software
Institutions and operations like the military, academic and business make use of computer network. This
network can be small size, medium size, or large size. Connectivity software connects your computer to a
local computer network or the Internet and provides tools that you can use to take advantage of the
information and communications they offer. Connectivity software includes communications software,
remote access software, e-mail software, and Web browsers.
7.2.3 Software Installation
Software could be bought from a shop, downloaded from a website, or bought through mail order. However,
after haven obtain a new software package you must install it on your computer before you can use it. After
installing your software, you might want to eliminate the software from your computer by uninstalling it from
your computer. Making a copy of a software might be legal or illegal depending on the copyright.
7.2.4 Installing a new program.
There are many ways of installing a new program in your computer.
Installing using Add/Remove program.
Using this method of installation;
1. Click the start button, point to the left pane of the Start
Menu (windows XP) and click control panel, and the Window for
the various control panels setting will appear.
2. Open the Add/Remove Programs icon
3. Click the Add New Programs button and click on the next
button to continue.
4. The wizard searches your floppy or CD-Rom disks. If it is
found, the installation continues automatically.

Fig. 7.3 Software Installation Wizard

7.2.5 Software compatibility

Before installing new software, you must be sure that it is compatible with your computer system. System
requirements can be found on the software box, software manual or posted on the download site. The
system requirements will specify the operating system and minimum hardware capacities necessary for a
software product to work correctly. For example
System Requirements
 Operating System: Window 95/98/2000/Me/XP
 Processor: Pentium III
Memory: 16 MB or more
 Hard Disk: Space: 1 GB free
 Network Protocol: TCP/IP
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You should make sure your computer meets or exceeds the system requirements specified by the software.
You should also make sure that your software is written for Windows, rather than for the Apple Macintosh
sometimes, the same software title is available for both PCs.
Once you know that the software is compatible with your hardware, you must make sure that the software
will work with your operating system. If your PC uses the DOS operating system. You must select DOS
operating system. If it uses the Microsoft Window operating system, you should use Windows software.
Windows runs some DOS software too.
7.2.6 Software setup
Computer software is usually on floppy disks, CD-ROMs, or DVDs. During the installation process, programs
and data for the software are copied to the hard disk of your computer system.
When installing software using a command line OS such as DOS, no particular installation procedure is
required, so each software application might require a unique set of steps. On the other hand, installing
Window software is easier since it is guided by a setup program (Wizard).
Steps to install Windows application software
1. Insert the setup disk, CD-ROM or DVD and the setup program starts automatically. If it does not, run
the setup exe.
2. Select the installation option that best meets your mode. During full installation or typical installation, all
files and data from distribution media are copied to the hard disk of your computer system. A full
installation provides you with access to all features of the software. During Custom installation, the
setup wizard displays a list of software features for your selection. The setup program then copies only
the features you select to the hard disk.
3. The setup wizard tells you what to do next.
4. When setup has finished, restarting your computer might be required to start the program you have just
installed to see that it works.
5. Fill out the registration form and send it, to become a technical support on product information or
documents on new versions of the software. Registration could be done through the Internet.
7.2.7 Removing a Program. (Uninstalling Software using Window
install utility)
With Dos OS you can remove software simply by deleting its files. Other
OS such as Windows provide access to uninstall routine, which delete
files from various folders of your computer‟s hard disk. In Windows, the
Add/Remove Programs icon is located in the control panel accessible
from the Start Menus.

Fig. 7.4 Add/Remove Program

7.2.8 License
Software license gives the user the right to use the software in the licensed environment; some software
come with the license when purchased off the shelf, or an OEM license when bundled with hardware.
Freeware is copyrighted software provided at no cost to users.
Shareware is copyrighted software that is distributed free for a trial period, and payment is required for
using the software beyond that trial period.
Public-domain software is free software donated for public use and has no copyright restrictions.
Single -user license: where the software can be used on only one computer. This is the usual type of
license.
Multi-user license: where an organization can install the software on an agreed number of computers. A
reduced fee is paid for each computer.
Site license: where any number of computers may use the software at a single location. One payment is
made to allow the multiple installations.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
COMPUTER APPLICATION AREAS
8.1 Introduction
Invention and development of Computers has influenced the life and living of the modern
Communities and Societies in so many ways. The aim of this chapter is to justify this assertion by
briefly describing some selected areas of computer application.
8.2 Application Areas
The need of the society keeps getting more and more complex with the passage of everyday. This is
due largely to advancement in technology. In order to cope with the complexity and sophistication of
present day problems, there is need to employ an efficient, fast and accurate tool. It is this speed and
accuracy property of the computer that has given it an edge over other tools.

1. Banking: People are now more than ever before increasingly aware of the advantages of lodging their
money in the banks. This has brought an increase in the number of customers to bankers since accuracy
and speed of operation is required to maintain and preserve the confidence of customers‟ records.
Computer software provides security, speed and convenience. Computers are also used in banks for
I. Processing savings and current accounts.
II. Foreign exchange transactions among others.
III. Automatic Teller Machine, ATM („SERVE YOU SELF‟)
2. Science and Engineering: In this area, computers are mostly used for complex calculations and
simulations. They play important roles in computer aided design (CAD). Such areas as ship, road and
aircraft designs, space simulation, inventory control and instrumentation also use computers.
3. Commercial enterprises: The computers involved in industries usually take the shape of a human
being or other objects with moving arms called robots which are controlled by software. They are used in
furnaces, manufacturing and assembly. They are also used for production planning, and scheduling
required operations research (management science).
4. Education: With the increasing number of people to receive education, the use of the computer
becomes inevitable in such areas as
 Admission processing
 Examination handling
 Computer aided teaching and learning (using projectors)
 Time table production
 Effective administration
 Online registration
 Online checking of results
 Use of the internet and its facilities for research
 Virtual libraries.
Distance education is using computer for instructional purpose as multi-media approach. The computer
makes a teaching-learning process effective by involving audio and visual facilities.
5. Health care and treatment of diseases: Developments in Computer have helped much in taking care
of the health including treatment of illness and diseases of the members of the modern communities.
Computers are now being used to perform surgery in hospitals in addition to the more fundamental use for
administrative purposes.
6. Home: Developments in Computer have provided modern methods for the entertainment and uplifting
of leisure to the modern communities. You can use computers to find information, store pictures and
music, track finances, play games, and communicate with others. Radio, Television Video, Film and
Computer services have taken a total command of providing entertainment and leisure time hobbies to the
modern communities.
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7. Management information system: Both government and private establishments require information
for policy making. Large volume of data is involved in this area and a fast and accurate information
processing system makes the use of computer inevitable. Some particular areas include
 Payroll
 Inventory control: Accounting is done using computers.
 Statistical analysis: Accounting is done using computers
 Fixed assets management
 Simulation of business models: One can predict future trends of business using artificial intelligence
software.
 Billing system: Shops and supermarkets use software, which calculate the bills.
 Budgetary control
 Market survey: Software is used in major stock markets.
Management information system is probably the area that has widest application of the computer.
8. Electronic money: Automatic teller machine is very common in banks. You can deposit and withdraw
money with the help of ATM.
9. Routine job handling: In the workplace, many people use computers to keep records, analyze data,
do research, and manage projects.
10. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) - for floor layouts and product design. Examples: 2D Design,
AutoCAD. Facilities include: various drawing and editing tools and ability to scale accurately, sometimes in
three dimensions and with ability to rotate in any direction.
11. Communications: The computer is used for sending messages e.g. Tele-printer, fax, e-mail, internet
etc. the import and export work is done on Internet. You also have very fast and convenient access to
information. Through E-Mail you can communicate with a person sitting thousands of miles away in
seconds. There is chat software that enables one to chat with another person on a real-time basis. Video
conferencing tools are becoming readily available to the common man.
12. Traffic control: controlling traffic, traffic lights. Surveillance cameras are used to maintain traffic light
routine.
13. Business - Shops and supermarkets use software, which calculate the bills. Taxes can be calculated
and paid online. Accounting is done using computers. One can predict future trends of business using
artificial intelligence software. Software is used in major stock markets. One of the most popular activities
on the Web is shopping. One can do trading online. E-commerce is typically used to describe Internet
activities that include online shopping, electronic auctions, online banking, and online stock trading. There
are fully automated factories running on software.
 35

CHAPTER NINE
DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING BASICS
9.1 Introduction
Data communication is the transmission of text, numeric, audio, or video data from one machine to
another. The four essential components of data communications are a sender, a receiver, a channel, and
a protocol. The computer that originates the message is the sender. The message is sent over some
type of channel (medium), such as telephone or coaxial cable, a microwave signal, or optical fibres. The
computer at the receiving end is called the receiver. The rules that establish an orderly transfer of data
between the sender and the receiver are called protocol.
Today the Internet has become the largest network in the world, connecting millions of people. It has
become an invaluable communications channel for individual, businesses, and governments around the
world.
9.2 Network
In this section you will be able to understand the types of computer networks found in a colleges,
Universities, or business. A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices connected
together to enable users to communicate and share resources. These resources include hardware such
as hard disks, printers and scanners as well as software and data. The area covered by a network can
range from a school campus to several continents.
As far as communication is concerned, the computer systems in operation today can be placed into four
broad categories:
1. Stand-alone systems;
2. Local-area networked system;
3. Metropolitan-area network system;
4. Wide-area network system

In stand-alone systems (SAS), the hardware, software, and data are in the same place. The data may
be obtained from many sources, but it is processed only at the central location. Normally, there is no
direct communication between a SAS and any other computer system. Many personal computers are
stand-alone computer system. Such computers that are not connected to a network are known as
standalone computers. Meanwhile computers that are connected to a network are known as
workstation computers.
A network that is located within a relatively limited area such as a building or compound is referred to as a
local area network (LAN). In this system, expensive facilities can be shared; for example, a laser printer
or hard disk. Also we can run a program which may be available only on another computer in the system.
This is handled by the network software. The communication links between the various machines in a
local area network are usually telephone lines or coaxial cables; fibre optics cables are also used in some
newer systems.
A computer network which covers a geographical area such as a city or a metropolitan area is referred to
as a metropolitan area network (MAN) (e.g. within a village, town, or subdivision) example of the cable
TV.
A network that covers a large geographical area is referred to as a wide area network (WAN) such as a
country. WANs provide many facilities found in a LAN. However, its geographical scope is much greater,
in some cases spanning national and international boundaries. Whereas a LAN normally provides
services to a single organization, a wide area network can be used to link many different users. Examples
of WANs include, the Internet, post services over satellite.

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9.3 Network topologies

A network can be arranged and configured in several different ways. Topology otherwise is the shape or
structure of a network.
Types of network topology
1. Star network. In a star network, a number of small computers or peripheral devices are linked to a
central unit. The central unit is the network hub and is typically a host computer or file server. All
communications pass through this central unit. Several users can share resources on a central
computer.

Fig. 9.1 Star topology

2. Bus network. In a bus network each device in the network handles its own communication control.
There is no host computer. All communications travel along a common connecting cable called a
bus. The bus network is typically used when only a few microcomputers are to be linked together.

Fig. 9.2Bus topology

3. Ring topology. Each device is connected to two other devices, forming a ring. There is no central
file server or computer. Messages are passed around the ring until they reach the correct
destination. The ring topology is not frequently used as others.

Fig. 9.3Ring topology

4. Tree network or hierarchical topology. It consists of several

computers linked to a central host computer just like a star network. The
hierarchical network allows various computers to share databases, processing power and different
output devices.

Fig. 9.4 Tree topology

5. Peer-to-peer network system. In a peer-to-peer, each workstation can communicate directly with
every other workstation on the network without going through a server
6. Client/server network systems. This system of network uses one computer to coordinate and
supply services to other nodes on the network. The server provides access to resources such as

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databases, application software, and hardware. Client/server network systems are widely used on
the internet.
One advantage of client server network is the ability to handle very large networks efficiently

Reasons why sharing programs is effective

1. Less disk storage space is required because the program is stored only once on the server instead
of being stored on the hard disk of multiple stand-alone computer.
2. Once a new version of the software is released, it is easier to update one copy of the program on the
server that to update many copies stored on stand-alone computers.
3. It will be less expensive purchasing a software license for a network.
4. Reduce maintenance.
9.4 Network Devices and Media
Cabled and Wireless networks
Wired connection is the most common type of network connection. By plugging your computer is the nest
in the wall you get network access. There are some advantages and disadvantages of a wired
connection.
Advantages of cable network over wireless
1. The fastest and most reliable access to compare with wireless.
2. It is “extremely secure against anyone seeing data that they are not supposed to”.
Disadvantages:
1. Cost materials and labour for each installation,
2. Additional cost if it needs to be moved,
3. Must be a way to get a wire from your computer to “the closest networking equipment in the building.

Advantages of wireless network over cable

1. Wireless network provide mobility. The most common use is to connect laptop users who travel
from location to location.
2. Good for temporal installation
3. Wireless operations permits services, such as long range communications, that are impossible or
impractical to implement with the use of wires
9.5 Communication
The language of the internet is Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML). The Internet is a new technology
based on the principle that, every piece of data or information, held electronically anywhere, is potentially
accessible to any other person with appropriate computer technology. A Word-processed document, a
picture, sound or video can be produced and shared among unlimited persons, no matter where they are
located in the world, as long as it has been digitized, recorded on disk, and put on the internet.
Computers on a network or the Internet communicate with one another using TCP/IP.
9.5.1 Internet Protocol (IP)A set of rules governing communication on the internet. It is important that a
computer follows the protocol it is using correctly, so that any message it sends out can be understood by
other computers. IP works by giving each machine on the internet a unique 12 digit IP address (like
[Link]). When a computer wants to send information across the internet, the information is
broken into small segments called packets, and each packet is stamped with a "to" and "from" IP
address. The packets are then sent across the internet to their destination.
9.5.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) adds extra information to each packet to make sure that
when they are received at the destination computer (by using IP) they have not been damaged, none of
them are missing, and they are all put back together in the right order. If any packets are missing or
damaged, a request is sent back to re-send those packets before the information is reassembled.
9.5.3 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): An internet facility that enables users to download information, files
or software on the internet.

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9.5.4 Internet Service Provider (ISP): The Company that provides internet connectivity or connects
users; computer to the internet.
9.5.5 The Internet is a worldwide communication infrastructure that links computer networks using
TCP/IP Protocol. That is, it is a huge number of computers all over the world, connected together. Just
as a few computers can be connected to form a network, so the Internet is an international network of
networks. WANs (Wide Area Networks) and LANs (Local Area Networks) also use TCP/IP.
9.5.6 Intranet: This is a private company network, sharing information and computer resources among
the company workers. It is Local Area Network (LAN) where computers are connected within a building,
building on a site or a campus. A LAN that uses TCP/IP is called an Intranet. An Intranet that provides
private external access is called extranet.
9.5.7 Extranet: an extranet is a private network that connects more than one organization. Many
organizations use internet technologies to allow suppliers and other limited access to their networks.
9.5.8 Fire walls: organizations have to be very careful to protect their information systems. A firewall is a
security system designed to protect an organizations network against external threats. It consists of
hardware and software that control access to a company‟s intranet or other internal networks. Typically
organizational firewalls include a special computer called a proxy server. This computer is a gate
keeper. All communications between the company‟s internal networks and the outside world must pass
through it. By evaluating the source and the content of each communication, the proxy server decides
whether it is safe to let a particular message or file pass into or out of the organization‟s network.

9.6 What is data communications?

Data communications concerns the transmission of digital messages from one computer or network to
another computer or network. As a rule, the maximum permissible transmission rate of a message is
directly proportional to signal power and inversely proportional to signal noise.
Communication channel
A communication channel is a pathway over which information can be conveyed. It could be a physical
wire that connects communicating devices, or by a radio or other radiated energy source that has no
physical presence.
9.6.1 Data transmission channels
[Link] A simplex channel: The message source is the transmitter, and the destination is the receiver. A
channel, whose direction of transmission is unchanging, referred to as a simplex channel. For example, a
radio station is a simple channel because it always transmits the signal to its listeners and never allows
them to transmit back.
[Link] A Half- Duplex Channel Is a single physical channel in which the direction may be reversed?
Messages may flow into two directions but never at the same time, in a half duplex system. In a
telephone call, one party speaks while the other listens. After a pause, the other party speaks while the
first listens. Speaking simultaneously results in garbled sound that cannot be understood.
[Link] A full- Duplex Channel allows simultaneous message exchange in both directions. It actually
consists of two simplex channels, a forward channel and a reverse channel, linking the same points. The
transmission rate of the reverse channel may be slower if it is used only for flow control of the forward
channel.
9.7 Network Technologies
9.7.1 Network Media
In computer networks, media (plural for medium) refers to a means used to link a network‟s nodes
together. There are many different types of media, but the most important factor is the volume of data
they can carry per time and the speed at which data is transmitted. The speed is measured in cycles per

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second (hertz or Hz) bits per second bps (common to find Kbps, Mbps, Gbps). This measure is called the
medium‟s bandwidth.
[Link] Wire-based Media
1. Twisted-pair cable: normally consists of four pairs of wires. The individual pairs have two wires that
are separately insulated in plastic, then twisted around each other and bound together in a layer of
plastic. Twisted-pair was once considered a low-bandwidth medium, but networks on twisted-pair wires
now support transmission speeds up to 1Gbps (gigabit per second).
2. Coaxial Cable: like the cabling used in cable television systems, coaxial cable has two conductors.
One is a single wire in the centre of the cable, and the other is a wire mesh shield that surrounds the first
wire, with an insulator between. Because it supports transmission speeds up to 10Mbps, coaxial cable
can carry more data than older types of twisted-pair wiring. However, it is also more expensive and
became less popular when twisted-pair technology improved.
3. Fibre-optic cable: is a thin strand of glass that transmits pulsating beams of light rather than electric
current. Fibre-optic cable can carry data at more than a billion bits per second. Because of improvements
in transmission hardware, however, fibre-optic transmission speeds now approach 100 Gbps. Fibre-optic
cable is immune to the electromagnetic interference that is a problem
for copper wire. Fibre-optic cable not only is extremely fast and can

(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 9.5 (a) twisted-pair cables (b) coaxial cable (c) fibre-optic

carry an enormous number of messages simultaneously, but is a very secure transmission medium.
[Link] Wireless Media: Wireless networks use radio or infrared signals that travel through the air (called
ether) for transmitting data. Office LANs can use radio signals to transmit data between nodes in a
building. Laptops equipped with cellular modems allow users to connect to the office network when they
travel. WANs often use microwave transmission to connect LANs within the same metropolitan area.
WANs that cover long distances often use satellites and microwave communication.
9.7.2 Network Interface Cards (NICs): Regardless of the wiring technology used, each computer on the
network needs a hardware component to control the flow of data. The device that performs this function is
the NIC also known as network adapter card or simply network card. This printed circuit board fits into
one of the computer‟s expansion slots and provides a port where the network cable is attached. Both the
network software and the NIC must adhere to the same network protocols.
In the case of a wireless NIC, there will be no port, an antenna will be showing, or a light will indicated
that an internal antenna is activated.

9.7.3 Network Linking Devices

To create a network, some type of linking mechanism is needed to interconnect at least two computers.
Sometimes these devices can be as simple as a special cable, called a crossover cable, which is
attached to two computers (NIC to NIC). Although now you have a network, if you want to add more
devices, then something more than a crossover cable is required.

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1. Hub: A hub is an affordable connection point for different types of devices on a network. This is not a
particularly fast connection because it broadcasts the packets it receives to all nodes attached to its ports.
Due to the substantial reduction in the cost of switches, this technology is slowly becoming obsolete.
2. Bridges: A bridge is a device that connects two LANs or two segments of the same LAN. A bridge
looks at the information on each packet header and forwards data that is travelling from one LAN to
another. Bridges are becoming a less-relied-upon technology because they use an older method for
determining which nodes are sending and receiving data and their functions are now integrated into more
advanced devices.
3. Switches: A switch is a device that learns which machine is connected to its port by using the PC,
printer, or other device‟s IP address. This is a very popular and sought-after device used to connect a
LAN. A switch substantially reduces the amount of broadcast traffic and is currently the most popular
network-linking devices. Modern switches can even function as routers, allowing multiple LANs to be
interconnected by linking each LAN‟s switches together. This is called an uplink.
4. Routers: A router is a complicated device that stores the routing information for networks. A router
looks at each packet‟s header to determine where the packet should go and then determines the best
route for the packet to take towards its destination. A router will not allow broadcast traffic to cross the
device unless modified to do so. Thus, a packet must be addressed to a specifically identified destination
to pass through the router. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs
or a LAN and its ISP‟s network. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks
connect. Routers also provide a security element. They can include several forms of firewall security.

(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)

Fig. 9.6 Network Devices

(a) Hub (b) Bridge (c) Switch (d) Router

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CHAPTER TEN
THE INTERNET AND ONLINE BUSINESS

10.1 A Brief History

In 1969, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defence began
connecting computers at different universities and defence contractors. The resulting network was called
ARPANET. The goal of this early project was to create a large computer network with multiple paths – in
the form of telephone lines – that could survive a
nuclear attack or a natural disaster such as an
earthquake.
At first, ARPANET was basically a large network serving
only a handful of users, but it expanded rapidly. The
network jumped across the Atlantic to Europe in 1973,
and never stopped growing. In the mid 1980s, another
federal agency, the National Science Foundation (NFS)
joined the project and founded NFSnet after the
Defence Department stopped funding. NFSnet made
internet connections widely available for academic
research, but the NFS did not permit private business
over the system. Therefore several private
telecommunications companies built their own network
backbones that used that used the same set of network
protocols as NFSnet. A backbone is the central structure that connects other elements of the network.
ARPANET was shut down in 1990 and the U.S. government stopped funding NFSnet, but the commercial
Internet backbone services replaced them. By early 1990s, interest in the internet began expanding
dramatically. The system that had been created as a tool for surviving a nuclear war found its way into
businesses and homes.

10.2 The Internet’s Major Services

The internet acts as a carrier for several services, each with its own distinct features and purposes. The
most common are: the World Wide Web (www), Electronic mail (or email), News, File Transfer Protocol,
Chat, Instant messaging, online services, peer-to-peer services. To use any of these services, you need
a computer that is connected to the internet in some way. Most individual users connect their computer‟s
modem to a telephone line, and set up an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP), a company
that provides local or regional access to the internet backbone.

10.3 Understanding the World Wide Web (www):

The Web (www) was created in 1989 at the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva,
Switzerland as a method for incorporating footnotes, figures and cross-references into online documents.
The Web‟s creator wanted to create a simple way to access any document that was stored on a network,
without having to search through indexes or directories of files, and without having to manually copy
documents from one computer to another before viewing them. To do this, they established a way to
“link” documents that were stored in different locations on a single computer, or on different computers on
a network. If you imagine a collection of billions of documents, all stored in different places, but all linked
together in some manner, you might imagine them creating a “web” of interconnected information. If you
extend that collection of documents and their links to cover the entire globe, you have a “world-wide web”
of information. This concept is where the Web gets its name.

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Many people believe that the web and the internet are the same thing, but this is not correct. In fact, they
are two different things. The web is a service (a system for accessing documents) that is supported by
the Internet (a gigantic network).
Web documents can be linked together because they are created in a format known as hypertext.
Hypertext systems provide an easy way to manage large collections of data, which can include text files,
pictures, sounds, movies and more. In a hypertext system, when you view a document on your
computer‟s screen, you can also access all the data that might be linked to it. So if the document is a
discussion of honey bees, you might be able to click a hypertext link and see a photo of a beehive, or a
movie of bees gathering pollen from flowers.
To support hypertext documents, the web uses a special protocol, called the hypertext transfer
protocol, or HTTP. A hypertext document is a specially encoded file that uses the Hypertext Markup
Language, or HTML. This language allows a document‟s author to embed hypertext links – also called
hyperlinks or just link in the document. HTTP and hypertext links are the foundations of the World Wide
Web. As you read a hypertext document – more commonly called a web page – on screen, you can click
a word or picture encoded as a hyperlink and immediately jump to another location within the same
document or to a different web page. The second page may be located on the same computer as the
original page, or anywhere else on the internet. Because you do not need to learn separate commands
and addresses to jump to a new location, the World Wide Web organises widely scattered resources into
a seamless whole.
A collection of related web pages is called a web site. Web sites are housed on web servers, internet
host computers that often store thousands of individual pages. Copying a page onto a server is called
publishing the page, but the process also is called posting or uploading.
Web pages are used to distribute news, interactive educational services, product information, catalogues,
highway traffic reports, and live audio and video, and other kinds of information. Web pages permit
readers to consult databases, order productions and information, and submit forms and payment with a
credit card or an account number.

10.4 Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)

The hypertext transfer protocol uses Internet addresses in a special format, called a uniform resource
locator, or URL. E.g.
This site is on the part of the To find specific web pages
Internet known as the World about ongoing exhibits at
Wide Web. MINSEC, your browser
follows the URL’s path to a
folder named cm (indicating
[Link] specifically Cameroon)

This address is for an The site is run a government

internet server that uses agency, the Ministry of Secondary
hypertext transfer protocol Education

10.5
Email and other Internet Services

1. E-Mail: The only Internet service that is more frequently used than the Web is electronic mail.
Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a system for exchanging messages through a computer network. People
most commonly use e-mail to send and receive text messages, but depending on the software used, you
may be able to exchange audio or video messages with someone else.
Email was one of the first uses of the Internet, and quickly became a popular feature because it lets users
exchange messages from anywhere in the world. Further, email is less expensive than using the
telephone because there is no charge for using it; beyond the regular fees you pay your ISP. Email is

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also a faster way to communicate than postal mail because email messages typically reach their
destination in seconds rather than in days.
2. News: In addition to the messages distributed to mailing lists by e-mail, the Internet also supports a
form of public board called news. There are tens of thousands of active Internet newsgroups, each
devoted to discussion of a particular topic.
3. Internet Relay Chat (IRC): IRC, or just chat, is a popular way for Internet users to communicate in real
time with other users. Real-time communication means communicating with other users in the immediate
present. Unlike email, chat does not require a waiting period between the time you send a message and
the time the other person or group of people receives the message.

10.6 Doing Business in the Online World

The World Wide Web has become a global vehicle for electronic commerce (e-commerce), creating new
ways for businesses to interact with one another and their customers. E-commerce means doing
business online, such as when a consumer buys a product over the Web instead of going to a store to
buy it. E-commerce technologies are rapidly changing the way individuals and companies do business.
You can go online to buy a book, lease a car, shop for groceries, or rent movies. You can even get a
pizza delivered to your door without picking up the phone.
But these kinds pf transactions are only a tip of the e-commerce iceberg. In fact, the vast majority of e-
commerce activities do not involve consumers at all. They are conducted among businesses, which have
developed complex networking systems dedicated to processing orders, managing inventories and
handling payments.

10.6.1 Online Banking

The term online banking refers to using a bank‟s Web site to handle banking-related tasks. Individuals
and businesses alike can visit any bank‟s Web site and do the following:
- Create an account
- Transfer funds
- Record or view transactions
- Reconcile statements
- Pay bills
If you use a personal-finance program at home, (such as Microsoft Money or Quicken), it can use your
internet connection to access your bank accounts online.

10.6.2 Online Finance

The term online finance refers to any kind of personal financial transaction you can conduct online, other
than managing your bank accounts. These activities include:
- Investment
- Applying for loans
- Applying for credit cards
- Buying insurance
- Preparing tax returns and paying taxes
- Doing financial research or seeking financial advice.

10.6.3 E-Commerce at the Business Level

Using powerful Web sites and online databases, companies not only sell goods to individual customers,
but also track inventory, order products, send invoices and receive payments. Using e-commerce
technologies (ranging from standard networks to supercomputers), companies are rapidly forming online
partnerships to collaborate on products designs, sales and marketing campaigns, and more. By giving

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one another access to private networks, corporate partners access vital information and work together
more efficiently.
10.6.4 Intranets and Extranets
An intranet is a corporate network that uses the same protocols as the internet, but belongs exclusively
to a corporation, school, or some other organisation. The intranet is accessible only to the organisation‟s
workers. If the intranet is connected to the internet, then it is secured by a special device called a firewall,
which prevents unauthorised external users from gaining access to it.
An extranet is an intranet that can be accessed by authorised outside users over the Internet. To gain
entrance to the extranet‟s resources, an external user typically must log on to the network by providing a
username and a password.

10.6.5 Cybercrime

Computer crime is aimed at stealing the computer, damaging information, or stealing information.
Computer crime is not necessarily technical in origin. Most criminal acts against computers do not directly
involve technology. The use of a computer to carry out any conventional criminal act, such as fraud, is
called cybercrime and is a growing menace. Cybercrime is growing so rapidly, in fact, that the federal
government of the US has created a handful of agencies to deal with computer-related crimes. The
International Council against Online Fraud for Central Africa, of which Cameroon is a member, is taking
similar steps. Instances of Internet fraud increased in 2010 than in 2009. In 2001, federal officials in the
US arrested 135 cybercriminals and seized over $17 million in assets. Criminal actions including setting
up fraudulent bank Web sites to steal account information from unsuspecting customers, auction fraud,
and non-delivery of merchandise.
Hacking: a hacker is someone who uses a computer and network or Internet connection to intrude into
another computer or system to perform illegal act. This may amount to simple trespassing or acts that
corrupt, destroy, or change data. At one time, a hacker was just a person who understood computers so
well; however, hacking now refers to criminal or antisocial activity. Today, hackers‟ activities are usually
categorised by their intent:
- Recreational attacks.
- Business or financial attacks.
- Intelligence attacks.
- Grudge and military attacks.
- Terrorist attacks.

10.6.6 Taking Protective Measures

1. Protecting Yourself: The only part of your computer system that needs protection more than your data
is you. Remember that if an identity thief strikes or a malicious webmaster gets hold of your personal
information, your computer will keep right on working, but other aspects of your life will be affected.
2. Keeping your Data Secure: Threats to your data are numerous, but the most ominous threat comes
from Malware in its various forms: viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and others. A purchased updated
version of antivirus software will do much good.
3. Restricting Access to your system: Aside from viruses, disk failures, and natural disasters, the worst
thing that can happen to your data is when someone else gains access to it. And it doesn‟t take a
professional hacker to ruin all the data on your PC. A member of your family can just do it as well, if
unintentionally. This is why it is critical to restrict access to your system, keep other people away from
your data.

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