MAGMA
Magma is the more general term that embraces mixture of melt (derived from molten rock)
and any crystals that may be suspended in it; therefore, it is defined as is a hot, mobile, molten
or partially rock material from which igneous rocks are form. Magma migrates either at depth or
to the Earth's surface, where it is ejected as lava. Temperature of magma near the Earth’s
surface range from about 1200°C to 700°C, with the higher values for mafic compositions,
the lower for silicic. Overall density of magma can be between 3.2 – 2.2 gmcm-3.
COMPOSITION
The original raw material of igneous rocks, or magma, may have a wide diversity of
chemical and physical properties. Magma is basically a silicic melt with or without volatile
components (H2O, Cl, CO2 etc.). The proportions of various elements vary greatly, according
to whether the magma is highly siliceous (acidic), or poor in silica (basic); but always the
following components are considered as the chief constituents of magma –
Si, Al, Fe2+, Fe3+, Mg, Ca, Na, K, Ti and O Besides these, other components present in magma
include – P, N, F, H, S, C etc.
These components are found as – SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 (ferric), FeO (ferrous), MnO, MgO,
CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5, H2O+, CO2, NO2, SO2 etc. However, some elements are found in trace
amount (i.e. below 0.1%), often called as ‘trace elements’, and their concentrations are
expressed in parts per million (ppm = µg g-1 = microgrammes of element per gramme of
sample) by mass or in the case of the least abundant trace elements, in parts per billion (ppb
= ng g-1 = nanogramme of element per gramme of sample). In spite of their low
concentrations, trace elements provide important information about magma source
and conditions of formation. Importance trace elements includes – B, Be, Ce, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu,
Cs, Dy, Er, Eu, Ga, Gd, Ge, Hf, Hg, La, Mo, N, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pr, S, Sc, Sm, Sn, Th, U, V, Y,
Yb, Zn, Zr etc.
PRIMARY MAGMA
Primitive magma: Formed by melting undepleted mantle; mantle close to its primordial or
chondritc composition. Since various parts of the mantle have been melted, differentiation
might have led to the removal of Na, K and trace elements. If such elements were removed,
the mantle will be enriched in Mg, and it is called a depleted mantle.
Primary magma: formed by melting either a depleted mantle or the lower crust. Dominantly,
magmas are basaltic or rhyolitic.
Derivative magma: formed by modification of a parent magma.
Now, the primary magma is that shows composition from a remotely early stage in earth’s
history, or by partial or complete fusion of preexisting solid rocks. However, a general
agreement among geologists that basaltic magma is primary. According to Bowen, basaltic
magma occupies a unique position in the igneous economy and it is accepted as the primary
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magma or at least a primary magma. Further, the status of basaltic magma as the primary
magma is supported by rocks types – alkaline olivine basalt, tholeiite, spilitic kindreds etc.
also, from the study of meteorites (e.g. siderite, siderolites, chondrites, achondrites, chondrules
etc.) from outer space suggest that basaltic magma is the most primitive magma and other
magmas are its derivatives. Usually meteorites are rich in Mg and
Fe, with a very small amount of silica, which is similar to basaltic magma.
MAGMA DERIVATIVES
When a preexisting magma is modified by fractionation or by contamination, it called as
derivative magma. Magma derivatives are the results of - magmatic differentiation processes
from one parental-magma; or by the different degrees of partial melting from the same
source rock. Different igneous rocks may be produced from one parental-magma by
magmatic
modification. As magma cools and rocks are formed, the residual magma will have a
composition different from the parent. Continued cooling could produce different daughter
or residual magmas. Different igneous rocks can thus be formed depending on the stage of
magmatic differentiation and the chemistry of the residual melt. There are three ways for
magma modification:
a) Crystal liquid fractionation.
i. Gravity separation.
ii. Convective fractionation
iii. Low differentiation.
iv. Congelation crystallization.
b) Vesiculation (vapor transport, volatile streaming
c) Liquid immiscibility
d) Diffusion
e) Magma mixing (hybridization)
f) Assimilation
GENERATION OF MAGMA
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Magma is generated by partial melting of the mantle or the lower crust. We know that rock
is melted when the temperature is raised. A rock does not become permeable below a 10%
partial melting. Even though a melt is generated, that melt will not coalesce to form a
magma. Thus, more than 10% partial melting of a rock is necessary. Refractory minerals will
melt under a high degree of partial melting. Minerals of lower crystallization temperatures
can be melted under a low degree of partial melting. Thus, because minerals have different
melting temperatures (Tm), different degrees of partial melting can provide different
magmas. If magma generated by small degree of partial melting is taken elsewhere and
cooled to form rocks that magma and those rocks can be different
from another that is formed by melting the whole rock. Thus, batch melting will give
different magma compositions and rocks. Each magma batch, which is formed, is a primary
magma and can produce different rocks by magmatic differentiation, including assimilation
depending where the magma has been ponded. Magma ponded in the mantle might
assimilate mantle rocks, whereas magma which is ponded in the crust could produce a
different magma by assimilating rocks. We are here talking about magma modification.
Factors affecting magma generation
Heating (change is T in hot-spots) due to
o Change is depth of burial
o Friction between tectonic plate
Addition of water (subduction zones) – as water decreases melting T
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Pressure relief melting (divergent boundaries) - magma occupies more space than
rock does. Therefore, in order to melt, the rock needs room to expand. This may not
be possible where
the pressure is too great.
CRYSTALLIZATION OF MAGMA
The cooling and crystallization of a melt is a complicated process. It is evident that the first
minerals to crystallise are those which can be precipitated from a completely, or almost
anhydrous melt, at high temperature. These are called as pyrogenetic minerals, and include
the majority of the silicates found as primary constituents in the basic rocks are olivine,
pyroxenes, calc-plagioclases etc. The separation of these pyrogenetic minerals leaves the
liquid relatively enriched in H2O and various other components of low atomic and
molecular weights, which are known as the volatiles and these minerals are called as
hydatogenetic minerals. These depends more on concentration of volatiles than on high
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temperature for their formation. Most of the alkali-rich minerals and those
containing hydroxyl fall in this category. Stages of magmatic crystallization:
Orthomagmatic stage: covers the separation of the pyrogenetic minerals and in the
case of a basic rock, accounts for the crystallization of the greater part of the
component minerals.
Pegmatitic stage: between temperature 400-600oC, a portion of fluid, extremely low
viscosity remains that leads to the development of crystals of exceptional size and
distinction.
Pneumatolytic state: in this stage, certain minerals like tourmaline, topaz, and fluorite
are appeared.
Hydrothermal stage: residual fluids may gradually pass towards the condition of low
T aqueous solutions, and causes deposition or replacement.
Chemical Analyses of Rocks
(Source: Robin Gill, 2010)
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