Module 1: Introduction to

Networking
 Scope of a Network
▪ Networking is everywhere.
▪ Networks support the way we learn and gives a new dimension to our
cognizance.
▪ Networks support the way we communicate.
▪ Network support the way we work.
▪ Networks provide a pathway to transfer information.
Background
• Merging of computers and communications has had a profound influence on the
way computer systems are organized.

• Once-dominant concept of the “computer centre” as a room with a large computer

to which users bring their work for processing is now totally obsolete (although
data centres holding thousands of Internet servers are becoming common).

• The old model of a single computer serving all of the organization’s computational
needs has been replaced by one in which a large number of separate but
interconnected computers do the job.

• These systems are called computer networks.

 Definition of “Computer Networks”
• A Computer network is a set of nodes connected by communication
links.
Node: A device capable
Communication Links: A medium
of sending or receiving
to transfer the information
data

• A computer network is a set of computers connected together to share

information
Connection link
NODE
Computer
Printer Switch Wired Unwired
Main goals of Computer Network:
o To facilitate Resource Sharing.
o To save Infrastructural costs.
 What do Computer Networks do ?
Computer networks carry a large number of
tasks through the sharing information.
➢Communicating via email, video, instant
messaging etc.
➢Sharing devices such as printers, scanners and
photocopiers.
➢Sharing operating systems, files and software on
remote systems.
➢Allow the network users to easily access and
maintain information.
 Components of computer network
• Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well
as the software required for installing computer networks, both at
organizations and at home.
• The hardware components are the server, client, peer, transmission
medium, and connecting devices. The software components are
operating system and protocols.
 Hardware Components
1. Servers
2. Clients
3. Peers
4. Transmission Media
5. Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks
or computers, by binding the network media together. Some of the common
connecting devices are:
6. Routers
7. Bridges
8. Hubs
9. Repeaters
10. Gateways
11. Switches
 Software Components

• Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is

typically installed in the server and facilitate workstations in a network
to share files, database, applications, printers etc.
• Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each
computer for data communication. Protocol suite is a set of related
protocols that are laid down for computer networks. The two popular
protocol suites are −
• OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
• TCP / IP Model
 Network Devices
1. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to
connect the computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to
establish a LAN.

2. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to

regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes
too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network.

3. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple

wires coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star
topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so
data packets are sent to all connected devices
4. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater,
with add on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC
addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two
LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output
port, thus making it a 2 port device.

5. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can
boost its efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and
performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform
error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it
does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to the correct port only.

6. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based
on their IP addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers
normally connect LANs and WANs
7. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect
two networks that may work upon different networking models. They
work as messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it,
and transfer it to another system.
 Network Topologies

• Geometric representation of how the computers are connected to each

other is known as topology.
• There are five types of topology –
➢Mesh
➢Star
➢Bus
➢Ring
➢Hybrid.
 Mesh Topology
• In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the
network through a dedicated point-to-point link.
• The link only carries data for the two connected devices only.
Advantages of Mesh topology
1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect
other links.
3. Fault detection is easy.
 Star Topology

• In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device

called hub.
• Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication
between devices, a device must have to communicate through hub.
Advantages of Star topology
1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be
connected with hub with one link.
2. Easier to install Less amount of cables required because each device needs
to be connected with the hub only.
 Bus Topology

• In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected
to this main cable through drop lines.
• There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the main
cable.
• Since all the data is transmitted over the main cable, there is a limit of
drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.
Advantages of bus topology
1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone
cable.
2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology
 Ring Topology

• In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either
side of it.
• This structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology.
• If a device wants to send data to another device then it sends the data in
one direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received
data is intended for other device then repeater forwards this data until the
intended device receives it.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only
two links are required to be changed.
•
 Hybrid Topology

• A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology.

For example a comb
Advantages of Hybrid topology
1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example,
scalability is our concern then we can use star topology instead of
bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the
existing networks with different topologies.
 Types of Computer Networks
• There are different types of computer networks, the categorization has
been done on the basis of usage, area over which the network operates,
number of users, transmission technology etc.
➢Personal Area Network(PAN).

➢Storage Area Network(SAN).

➢Local Area Network(LAN).

➢Metropolitan Area Network(MAN).

➢Wide Area Network(WAN).

 Local area network (LAN)
• LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way
that personal computer and workstations can share data, tools and
programs.
• The group of computers and devices are connected together by a
switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as
defined by the TCP/IP protocol.
• Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the local
network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting
them to the larger WAN.
 Metropolitan area network (MAN)
• MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a
LAN and smaller area as compared to WAN.
• It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the
same or different cities.
• It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet
Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need a high-
speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN ranges in terms of Mbps.
• It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network
 Wide area network (WAN)

• WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over

a large geographical area, although it might be confined within the
bounds of a state or country.
• A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LAN’s via
telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a
corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public.
• The technology is high speed and relatively expensive.
 Switching techniques
• In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver.
The switching technique will decide the best route for data
transmission.
• Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-
one communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques

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 Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.
• In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
• Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
• In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data,
voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back
the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After
receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
• Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
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• Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
• Circuit establishment
• Data transfer
• Circuit Disconnect

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 Message switching
• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a
message is transferred as a complete unit and routed through
intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
• In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of
a dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message. Message
Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is
routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
• Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they
can provide the most efficient routes.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then
forward it to the next node. This type of network is known
as store and forward network.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent
entity.

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 Advantages of message switching

• Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that

improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily
stored in the nodes.
• Message priority can be used to manage the network.
• The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied.
Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

30
 Disadvantages of message switching

• The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to

enable them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
• The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

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 Packet switching

• The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one
go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message
will be sent.

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34
 Advantages of packet switching:

• Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do

not require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
• Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
• Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not
require any established path prior to the transmission, and many users
can use the same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes
use of available bandwidth very efficiently.

35
 Disadvantages of packet switching:

• Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those

applications that require low delay and high-quality services.
• The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex
and requires high implementation cost.
• If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires
retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical
information if errors are nor recovered.

36
 Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
• In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established before any data
packets are sent.
• A logical connection is established when
➢ a sender send a "call request packet" to the receiver and the receiver send
back an acknowledge packet "call accepted packet" to the sender if the receiver
agrees on conversational parameters.
• The conversational parameters can be maximum packet sizes, path to be taken,
and other variables necessary to establish and maintain the conversation.
• Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control, and error control, so
virtual circuits are reliable.
• That is, they have the capability to inform upper-protocol layers if a transmission
problem occurs.

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 Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
• In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not mean that this is a
dedicated path, as in circuit switching.
• A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for output over a line.
• The difference between virtual circuit and datagram approaches:

➢ With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a routing decision
for each packet.
➢ It is made only once for all packets using that virtual circuit.

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 Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
VC's offer guarantees that

➢the packets sent arrive in the order sent with no

duplicates or omissions with no errors (with high
probability)regardless of how they are implemented
internally.

41
Tasks involved in sending a letter
1-5.1 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.

An ISO is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

model is the standard that covers all aspects of
network communications from ISO. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.
Layered Architecture
Layers
Seven layers of the OSI model
Layer 7. Application

Layer 6. Presentation
Layer 5. Session

Receiver
Layer 4. Transport

Sender
Layer 3. Network

Layer 2. Data Link

Layer 1. Physical
Layered Architecture
◼ A layered model
◼ Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions
◼ Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform
more primitive functions
◼ Each layer provides services to the next higher layer
◼ Changes in one layer should not require changes in
other layers
◼ The processes on each machine at a given layer are
called peer-to-peer process
 PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS
◼ Communication must move downward through the layers on
the sending device, over the communication channel, and
upward to the receiving device
◼ Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to
the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes
the whole package to the layer just below it
◼ At the receiving device, the message is unwrapped layer by
layer, with each process receiving and removing the data
meant for it
 PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS
◼ The passing of the data and network information down
through the layers of the sending device and backup through
the layers of the receiving device is made possible by interface
between each pair of adjacent layers
◼ Interface defines what information and services a layer must
provide for the layer above it.
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

◼ Function
◼ Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
◼ Representation of bits
◼ Data rate
◼ Synchronization of bits
◼ Line configuration (point-to-point or multipoint)
◼ Physical topology (mesh, star, ring or bus)
◼ Transmission mode ( simplex, half-duplex or duplex)
Physical layer
Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

◼ Function
◼ Framing
◼ Physical addressing
◼ Flow control
◼ Error control
◼ Access control
Data link layer
Hop-to-hop delivery
Example 1

In following Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node

with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link. At the data
link level this frame contains physical addresses in the header. These are the
only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other information
needed at this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error
detection
Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

◼ Source-to-destination delivery
◼ Responsible from the delivery of packets from the original
source to the final destination
◼ Functions
◼ Logical addressing

◼ routing
Network layer
Source-to-destination delivery
Example 2

We want to send data from a node

with network address A and
physical address 10, located on
one LAN, to a node with a
network address P and physical
address 95, located on another
LAN. Because the two devices are
located on different networks, we
cannot use physical addresses
only; the physical addresses only
have local influence. What we
need here are universal addresses
that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical)
addresses have this characteristic.
Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

◼ Process-to- process delivery

◼ Functions

◼ Port addressing

◼ Segmentation and reassembly

◼ Connection control ( Connection-oriented or connection-less)

◼ Flow control

◼ Error control
Transport layer

Segmentation and reassembly

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Example 3

Data coming from the

upper layers have port
addresses j and k (j is the
address of the sending
process, and k is the
address of the receiving
process). Since the data size
is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data
are split into two packets,
each packet retaining the
port addresses (j and k).
Then in the network layer,
network addresses (A and
P) are added to each
packet.
Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

▪ It establishes, maintains and synchronize the

interaction between communicating system
▪ Function
▪ Dialog control
▪ Synchronization (checkpoints)
Session layer

Synchronization
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

▪ Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the

information exchanged between two system
▪ Functions
▪ Translation ( EBCDIC-coded text file → ASCII-coded
file)

▪ Encryption and Decryption

▪ Compression
Presentation layer
Application Layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

◼ Functions
◼ Network virtual terminal (Remote log-in)

◼ File transfer and access

◼ Mail services

◼ Directory services (Distributed Database)

◼ Accessing the World Wide Web

Application layer
Summary of layers
 Summary of layers

OSI Model
Data
Layer Function
unit

User 7. Application Network process to application

support Data 6. Presentation Data representation and encryption
layers
5. Session Inter-host communication
Sender

Receiver
User
Segment 4. Transport End-to-end connections and reliability
Network
Path determination and logical
Packet 3. Network
Network addressing
support Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Bit 1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission
Interfaces and Services
• The function of each layer in computer networking
architecture is to provide services (i,e., setting up
connection, delivering information) to the layer above it.
Interfaces and
Services
• The active elements in each layer
are often called entities. An
entity can be a software entity
(such as a process), or a
hardware entity (such as an
intelligent I/O chip).
• The entities in layer n
implement a service used by
layer n+1. In this case layer n
called the service provider and
layer n+1 is called the service
user.
• Layer n may use the services of
layer n-1 in order to provide its
service.
 Interfaces and Services
• Services are available at SAPs (Service
Access Points). The layer n SAPs are the
places where layer n+1 can access the
services offered. Each SAP has an address
that uniquely identifies it.
• At a typical interface, the layer n+1 entity
passes an IDU (Interface Data Unit) to the
layer n entity through the SAP.
• An IDU consist of two parts namely SDU
(Service Data Unit) and ICI (Interface
Control Information).
• The SDU is the information passes across
the network to the peer entity and then
up to layer n+1 ( in peer).
• The control information is needed to help
the lower layer so its job (e.g., the
number of bytes in the SDU) but is not
part of the data itself.
 Interfaces and Services
• Services are available at SAPs (Service
Access Points). The layer n SAPs are the
places where layer n+1 can access the
services offered. Each SAP has an address
that uniquely identifies it.
• At a typical interface, the layer n+1 entity
passes an IDU (Interface Data Unit) to the
layer n entity through the SAP.
• An IDU consist of two parts namely SDU
(Service Data Unit) and ICI (Interface
Control Information).
• The SDU is the information passes across
the network to the peer entity and then
up to layer n+1 ( in peer).
• The control information is needed to help
the lower layer so its job (e.g., the
number of bytes in the SDU) but is not
part of the data itself.
 Interfaces and Services
• In order to transfer SDU, the layer N entity has to divide (or merge) it into
many smaller pieces.
• Each piece is given a header and sent as a separate PDU (Protocol Data Unit)
such as a packet.
• The PDU header are used by peer entities to carry out their peer protocol.
• They also provide sequence number and counts.
• When layer N+1 passes PDU to layer N, they are treated as layer N SDUs.
Interfaces and Services
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data
link, network, transport, and application.
TCP/IP and OSI model
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
A private internet
 Communication at the physical layer

Legend Source Destination

A R1 R3 R4 B
Physical Physical
layer layer
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

011 ... 101 01

1.
..
10
1

011 ... 101 011 ... 101

 Communication at the data link layer
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame
 Communication at the network layer
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

D3 H3
Datagram
 Communication at transport layer
A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B
Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment
 Communication at application layer
A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message
OSI Model
TCP/IP and OSI model

TCP/IP Model
Internet Layer

TCP/IP support the Internet Protocol IP ( unreliable).

IP is a host-to-host protocol.
Supporting protocols:
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
• Internet Control Massage Protocol (ICMP)
• Internet Group Massage Protocol (IGMP)
Transport Layer

Process-to-process protocol.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
1-6 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet

employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.
Addresses in TCP/IP
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
Physical Address

Physical addresses are imprinted on the

NIC. Most local-area networks (Ethernet)
use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written
as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon.

Example:
[Link]
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical
address.
Physical Address

• known also as the MAC address

• Is the address of a node as defined by its
LAN or WAN
• It is included in the frame used by data link
layer
The physical addresses in the datagram may change
from hop to hop.
Example 2.3

In Figure 2.16 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to

a node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected
by a link (a LAN). At the data link layer, this frame contains
physical (link) addresses in the header. These are the only
addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other
information needed at this level. As the figure shows, the
computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the
computer with physical address 87 is the receiver. The data link
layer at the sender receives data from an upper layer. It
encapsulates the data in a frame. The frame is propagated
through the LAN. Each station with a physical address other
than 87 drops the frame because the destination address in the
frame does not match its own physical address. The intended
destination computer, however, finds a match between the
destination address in the frame and its own physical address.
 Example 2.3: physical addresses

1 packet
87 10 Data accepted
87 10 Data

4
Logical Address

▪ IP addresses are necessary for universal

communications that are independent of physical
network.
▪ No two host address on the internet can have the
same IP address
▪ IP addresses in the Internet are 32-bit address that
uniquely define a host.

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
Example 2.5

Figure 2.17 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a
pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In
this case, each computer is connected to only one link and
therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router, however,
is connected to three networks. So each router has three pairs of
addresses, one for each connection. Although it may be obvious
that each router must have a separate physical address for each
connection, it may not be obvious why it needs a logical address
for each connection. We discuss these issues in Chapters 11
and 12 when we discuss routing. The computer with logical
address A and physical address 10 needs to send a packet to the
computer with logical address P and physical address 95. We
use letters to show the logical addresses and numbers for
physical addresses, but note that both are actually numbers, as
we will see in later chapters.
Example 2.5: logical addresses

20 10 A P Data 20 10 A P Data 33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed

95 66 A P Data 95 66 A P Data
33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed
 Port addresses

Port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal

number ranged from (0-65535) to choose a process among
multiple processes on the destination host.
▪ Destination port number is needed for delivery.
▪ Source port number is needed for receiving a reply as an
acknowledgments.

In TCP/IP , a 16-bit port address represented

as one single number. Example: 753

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.
Port addresses
Specific addresses

E-mail address (user1@[Link])

Universal Resource Locator (URL) ([Link])

The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human-friendly

computer hostnames ( URL) into IP addresses. For example,
[Link] is translated to [Link]
 OSI TCP/IP
OSI represents Open System Interconnection. TCP/IP model represents the Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol.

OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard. It is acting as an TCP/IP model depends on standard protocols about which the computer
interaction gateway between the network and the final-user. network has created. It is a connection protocol that assigns the
network of hosts over the internet.

The OSI model was developed first, and then protocols were created to The protocols were created first and then built the TCP/IP model.
fit the network architecture’s needs.

It provides quality services. It does not provide quality services.

The OSI model represents defines administration, interfaces and It does not mention the services, interfaces, and protocols.
conventions. It describes clearly which layer provides services.

The protocols of the OSI model are better unseen and can be returned The TCP/IP model protocols are not hidden, and we cannot fit a new
with another appropriate protocol quickly. protocol stack in it.

It is difficult as distinguished to TCP/IP. It is simpler than OSI.

It provides both connection and connectionless oriented transmission It provides connectionless transmission in the network layer and
in the network layer; however, only connection-oriented transmission supports connecting and connectionless-oriented transmission in the
in the transport layer. transport layer.

It uses a vertical approach. It uses a horizontal approach.

The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. The smallest size of the TCP/IP header is 20 bytes.

Protocols are unknown in the OSI model and are returned while the In TCP/IP, returning protocol is not difficult.
technology modifies.