Class Notes: Cognitive Psychology 101
Topic: Memory & Information Processing
Key Concepts:
Memory Models:
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968): Suggests that memory consists of three components:
Sensory Memory: Stores raw, unprocessed sensory information for a very short
period.
Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity, lasts about 15-30 seconds.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity, information stored for long durations
(days, months, years).
Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972):
Emphasizes the depth of processing rather than the stages of memory.
Shallow Processing: Basic encoding (e.g., reading words).
Deep Processing: Semantic encoding (e.g., understanding the meaning of words).
Types of Memory:
Episodic Memory: Personal experiences (e.g., remembering your first day of school).
Semantic Memory: General knowledge or facts (e.g., knowing that Paris is the
capital of France).
Procedural Memory: Skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike or typing on a
keyboard).
Key Processes in Memory:
Encoding:
The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.
Types of encoding:
Acoustic: Sound-based (e.g., remembering a song lyric).
Visual: Image-based (e.g., remembering someone's face).
Semantic: Meaning-based (e.g., remembering the meaning of a word).
Storage:
Refers to maintaining information over time.
Consolidation: The process by which memories become stable in the brain, typically
occurring during sleep.
Retrieval:
The process of recalling stored information.
Recall: Recalling information without external cues (e.g., essay questions on a
test).
Recognition: Identifying information when presented with cues (e.g., multiple-
choice questions).
Forgetting:
Interference Theory:
Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with the recall of newer ones.
Retroactive Interference: Newer memories interfere with the recall of older ones.
Decay Theory: Memory traces fade over time if not actively rehearsed.
Memory Distortions:
False Memories: The phenomenon where a person recalls something that didn’t
actually occur.
Example: People may remember details of a news event that were not actually
covered.
Misinformation Effect: The way information presented after an event can distort
memory.
Study: Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrated how the phrasing of a question (e.g.,
"How fast were the cars going when they smashed?" vs. "How fast were the cars going
when they hit?") influenced people's recollection of a car crash.
Case Study: H.M.
Background: Henry Molaison (H.M.) had brain surgery to treat epilepsy, resulting in
the removal of both hippocampi.
Findings: He had no ability to form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia),
but his short-term memory and procedural memory remained intact. This case provided
key insights into the role of the hippocampus in memory.
Key Takeaways:
Memory is a complex process involving encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Memory can be distorted, and errors can occur in the recall process.
The hippocampus plays a critical role in the formation of new long-term memories.
Homework Assignment:
Read Chapter 4 on "Memory Systems" in the textbook.
Write a 1-page reflection on how the concept of memory fits into everyday life
(e.g., how do you use your memory in a typical day?).
