WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?

Definition:

According to Folkerts & Berggren (2025), mathematics is:

●​ The science of structure, order, and relation​

●​ It started from basic activities like counting, measuring, and describing shapes​

In simple words:

Math is about understanding numbers, patterns, and how things are organized.

🧠
Mathematics in the Foundation Phase

Young children in this phase learn basic skills such as:

●​ Problem-solving​

●​ Critical thinking​

●​ Reasoning​

●​ Application​

●​ Analytical thinking​

They learn mathematical knowledge, concepts, skills, and processes.

🎓
What is a Learning Approach?
A learning approach is the way learners gain knowledge.

In this unit, we focus on two main approaches:

1.​ Traditional Approach​

2.​ Problem-Centered Approach​

📏 TRADITIONAL APPROACH
Main Features:

●​ Teacher-centered (teacher talks, learners listen)​

●​ Rote learning (memorization)​

●​ Structured lessons​

●​ Learners are passive (they just receive information)​

How math is taught:

●​ The teacher explains the steps​

●​ Gives examples​

●​ Learners copy and practice​

Weaknesses:

●​ Less real-world connection​

●​ Few group activities​

●​ Not suited for all learning styles​

🧩 PROBLEM-CENTERED APPROACH
Main Features:

●​ Student-centered (learners are active)​

●​ Learners ask questions, solve problems​

●​ Lessons are flexible​

●​ Focus on real-life application​

●​ Learning is collaborative (group work)​

How math is taught:

●​ Hands-on activities​

●​ Projects and discussions​

●​ Learners use their own thinking to solve problems​

Strengths:

●​ Encourages creativity​

●​ Builds social and thinking skills​

●​ Supports different learning styles​

⚖️
Comparison: Traditional vs Problem-Centered
 Feature Traditional Problem-Centered

Role of Teacher Main source of knowledge Guide or facilitator

Role of Learners Passive Active participants

Lesson Type Structured Flexible

Focus Memorization Critical thinking &

real-world

Activities Worksheets, repetition Hands-on, collaborative

✅
Conclusion: Best Practice

●​ A balance of both approaches is important.​

●​ Some lessons need structure and practice (traditional), while others benefit
from creativity and interaction (problem-centered).​

🧠 WHAT IS CAPS?
CAPS = Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement

It’s a guide used by teachers in South Africa to know:

 ●​ What to teach​

●​ How to teach it​

●​ What content to cover​

●​ What resources to use​

●​ How to support learners and assess them​

🧱 THREE STAGES OF THINKING IN MATH

Children don’t go straight to using symbols and numbers. They go through stages.
Here’s how it works:

1.

Concrete Thinking

– “Touch and See”

✅ What it is:
Children learn by using real objects they can see and touch. This helps them understand
basic math ideas in a fun and hands-on way.

✅ Examples of objects used:

●​ Bottle caps​

●​ Buttons​

●​ Beans​

●​ Marbles​
 ●​ Dice​

●​ Sticks​

●​ Abacus​

●​ Shapes​

●​ Measuring tools​

●​ Tangrams (shape puzzles)​

✅ Example activity:
“If you buy 3 apples, 2 bananas, and 5 oranges, how many fruits do you
have?”
Children can use actual fruit or counting blocks to figure it out.

✅ Why it’s important:

●​ Makes learning practical and real​

●​ Helps them grasp the basics​

●​ Gets them involved and excited​

●​ Builds their confidence​

2.

Semi-Concrete Thinking

– “Draw It”

✅ What it is:
Instead of using real objects, children draw pictures to show what’s happening in a
math problem. It’s the next step toward abstract thinking.

✅ Example activity:
“Tiisetso has 3 doughnuts. She eats 1. How many are left?”
The child might draw 🍩🍩🍩, cross out one, and count what’s left.
✅ Why it’s important:
●​ Helps learners slowly stop depending on physical items​

●​ Develops imagination and picture-based problem solving​

3.

Abstract Thinking

– “Think and Solve”

✅ What it is:
At this stage, children use symbols and numbers (like +, –, =). They can solve problems in
their head or on paper without real objects or drawings.

✅ Example:
Instead of using beans or drawing, they solve:
3–1=2

✅ Why it’s important:

●​ It’s the final stage of understanding math​

●​ Prepares learners for more complex concepts​

●​ Develops mental math and reasoning​

🧑‍🏫 HOW TEACHERS SUPPORT THE TRANSITION
To help children move from concrete → abstract thinking, teachers should:

Step-by-step process:

1.​ ✅ Start with real objects to introduce new math concepts.​

​
→ Example: Use counting blocks for addition.​

2.​ ✏️ Move to semi-concrete materials like pictures, drawings, or charts.​

​
→ Example: Instead of blocks, draw apples.​

3.​ 🧠 Gradually introduce abstract thinking with symbols and written numbers.​
​
→ Example: 2 + 3 = 5, without pictures.​

4.​ 🌍 Use real-world examples to make it meaningful.​

​
→ Example: “If you have 10 rands and spend 6, how much do you have left?”​

5.​ 🔁 Connect symbols to real objects as you teach.​

​
→ Show that “+” means “put together,” and model that with bottle caps, for
example.​

📌 KEY TAKEAWAYS
●​ Children learn math best when it’s hands-on first​

●​ They progress from concrete → semi-concrete → abstract​

 ●​ Manipulatives (real objects) are essential in the beginning​

●​ The goal is to help them understand math deeply, not just memorize​

●​ Teachers should balance all levels and move slowly as learners are ready​

🧠 What Are Learning Theories?

Learning theories explain how people learn — how they gain, understand, store, and
remember knowledge.

They are important in education because they help teachers understand children’s
behavior and choose effective teaching methods.

📚 MAIN LEARNING THEORIES YOU NEED TO

KNOW:

1.

Constructivism

– “Learning by building your own understanding”

🟢 Definition:
Learners actively create their own knowledge by connecting new experiences to what
they already know.

They are not passive — they are builders of meaning.

🧠 Key thinkers:
●​ Jean Piaget: Learning happens through mental processes like:​
 ○​ Assimilation (fitting new info into what you already know)​

○​ Accommodation (changing what you know to fit new info)​

○​ Equilibration (balancing the two)​

●​ Lev Vygotsky:​

○​ Learning happens through social interaction​

○​ ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development) is key — it’s the gap between what a
child can do alone and what they can do with help​

○​ Teachers guide learning and create supportive environments​

🧩 In practice:
●​ Letting learners explore and make sense of ideas​

●​ Connecting lessons to their real-life experiences​

●​ Group work and discussions​

●​ Teachers act more like facilitators than lecturers​

2.

Behaviorism

– “Learning through rewards, rules, and repetition”

🟢 Definition:
Learning is based on observable behavior. Children learn when they are rewarded or
punished. Behavior is shaped by the environment — especially adults (like teachers).

🎯 Key ideas:
 ●​ Teachers set clear rules and expectations​

●​ Positive reinforcement = praise or reward (e.g., stickers, points, praise)​

●​ Negative reinforcement = removal of something unpleasant (e.g., no homework if

everyone does well)​

●​ Repetition is important — the more they practice, the more they remember​

🧮 In mathematics:
●​ Drilling math facts (like times tables)​

●​ Giving praise for correct answers​

●​ Setting classroom rules (e.g., raise your hand)​

●​ Giving regular feedback to correct mistakes early​

3.

Cognitivism

– “Learning is a thinking process”

🟢 Definition:
Learning happens through mental processes like thinking, understanding, remembering,
and problem-solving.

🧠 The brain works like a computer: it takes in information, stores it, and retrieves it
when needed.

📦 Schemas:
New knowledge is added to what you already know (your mental file folders).

🧠 In mathematics:
 ●​ Puzzle solving​

●​ Memory games​

●​ Storytelling related to math​

●​ Pattern recognition​

●​ Building blocks​

●​ Songs, music, rhythm, nature walks — all can stimulate mental connections​

🎯 Goal: Help children become better at processing and applying knowledge, not just
memorizing.

🧑‍🏫 Why These Theories Matter for Teaching

Each theory gives us tools to support learners at different stages:

Theory Role of Learner Role of Teacher Focus Area

Constructivism Active, builds Facilitator/Guide Experiences,

meaning exploration,
discussion

Behaviorism Passive, shaped by Director & Rules, rewards,

others Reinforcer repetition

Cognitivism Thinker & problem Designer of Mental processing,

solver learning strategies memory, thinking
✅ QUICK SUMMARY
●​ Learning theories help us understand how kids learn​

●​ Constructivism: Learners build knowledge through experience and social

interaction​

●​ Behaviorism: Learners are shaped by reinforcement (rewards and discipline)​

●​ Cognitivism: Learners use thinking and memory processes to learn​

●​ Teachers use all three to support different needs and learning styles​

📘
Foundation Phase Mathematics: CAPS Content
Overview

🏫 What curriculum is used in South African schools?

●​ CAPS = Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement​

●​ It is a policy document that guides:​

○​ What to teach (curriculum content)​

○​ How to assess (assessment guidelines)​

○​ Time allocation​

○​ Teaching methods and resources​

📄 What does the
CAPS document

include?

●​ Curriculum aims​

●​ Content areas​

●​ Assessments (informal + formal)​

●​ Recommended resources​

●​ Time allocations​

●​ Specific aims and skills for each subject​

Each subject has its own CAPS document.

📚 The
5 Mathematics Content Areas

in CAPS:

According to the CAPS document, Foundation Phase Mathematics has five main content
areas:

1.​ Numbers, Operations & Relationships​

2.​ Patterns, Functions & Algebra​

3.​ Space & Shape (Geometry)​

 4.​ Measurement​

5.​ Data Handling​

⏳ Why is
weighting

important?

●​ Weighting tells how much time should be spent on each content area.​

●​ In the Foundation Phase, Numbers, Operations & Relationships is the most

important area.​

●​ This area builds the basic number sense and arithmetic skills that support all
other maths learning.​

🧮 What is mathematics like in the Foundation Phase?

Foundation Phase maths is:

●​ Structured yet creative​

●​ Visual, colourful, and playful​

●​ Hands-on (concrete objects)​

●​ Interactive and fun​

●​ Meant to grow curiosity and understanding​

📝 What is the purpose of
assessments

There are two types of assessment:

1.​ Informal Assessments​

○​ Happen during everyday learning​

○​ Used to check learners’ progress and understanding​

○​ Examples: asking questions, group activities, short quizzes, observations​

2.​ Formal Assessments​

○​ Planned and done at the end of a learning unit or term​

○​ Used to check if learners have achieved the required outcomes​

○​ Examples: written tests, assignments, term-end tasks​

🧩
What Are Patterns?

Patterns in Maths Are:

●​ Repeated designs or sequences​

●​ Found in numbers, shapes, and objects​

●​ Help learners predict, think logically, and understand structure​

✨
Two Main Types of Patterns:

1.

Geometric Patterns

●​ Made with lines, shapes, or objects​

●​ Examples:​

○​ 🔵🔴🔵🔴 (repeating colours)​

○​ ▲■▲■ (shapes)​

2.

Number Patterns

●​ Sequences of numbers that follow a rule​

●​ Examples:​

○​ 2, 4, 6, 8 (counting in 2s)​

○​ 10, 20, 30, 40 (counting in 10s)​

🎯
Why Teach Patterns?
To help learners:

●​ Identify patterns​

●​ Describe patterns (e.g. “It repeats every two shapes.”)​

●​ Complete patterns (What comes next?)​

●​ Create their own patterns​

📘 CAPS Grade Overview for Patterns

🟡
Grade 1 – Focus: Simple Patterns

Geometric Patterns:

●​ Copy and extend simple patterns using objects and drawings​

●​ Describe patterns using words​

●​ Identify patterns in:​

○​ Nature 🌿​
○​ Everyday life 🏡​
○​ Cultural heritage 🎨​
●​ Create and describe own patterns​

Number Patterns:

●​ Count forwards/backwards in:​

 ○​ 1s (to at least 100)​

○​ 2s, 5s, 10s (from multiples up to 100)​

●​ Create and describe number sequences​

🟢
Grade 2 – Focus: Building Complexity

Geometric Patterns:

●​ Copy and describe more complex patterns​

●​ Patterns may change in number or size​

●​ Identify real-world patterns​

●​ Create and explain own patterns​

Number Patterns:

●​ Count to at least 150 using:​

○​ 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s, 10s​

●​ Count forwards and backwards​

●​ Begin working with number relationships​

●​ Create own number patterns​

🔵
Grade 3 – Focus: Increasing Number Range & Pattern Rules

Geometric Patterns:

●​ Work with larger and more complex patterns​

●​ Describe changes in size or number of shapes​

●​ Identify patterns in:​

○​ Nature 🌼​
○​ Modern life 🚗​
○​ Culture 🧵​
●​ Create detailed patterns and describe them clearly​

Number Patterns:

●​ Count to at least 1,000 using:​

○​ 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s, 10s, 20s, 25s, 50s, 100s​

●​ Learn to identify the rule in number sequences​

●​ Create and describe number patterns based on rules​

🏫
Transforming the Learning Environment
for Mathematics in the Foundation
Phase
🌟
What Should a Foundation Phase Maths Classroom Be
Like?

✅
Key Features:

●​ Welcoming and child-friendly​

●​ Bright, colourful, and inviting​

●​ Safe, comfortable, and inclusive​

●​ Supportive and encouraging​

●​ Stimulating and interactive​

●​ Playful and fun​

●​ Promotes diversity and uniqueness​

●​ Focuses on holistic development​

A well-prepared classroom inspires curiosity and builds a love for

mathematics.

👩‍🏫
What Should Learners Feel, See, and Hear?
 ●​ They feel excited and safe​

●​ They see colourful posters, organized learning spaces​

●​ They hear positive feedback, questions, and encouragement​

●​ They feel they belong and are accepted​

🪑
Classroom Layout Ideas:
●​ Tables and chairs arranged neatly with name-tags​

●​ Chairbags for essentials​

●​ Learning corners (e.g. Fantasy corner, Counting corner)​

●​ Maths resources on shelves or trays​

●​ Organised paperwork and files​

●​ Display of learners’ work​

●​ Carpet area for group activities​

●​ Posters, charts, and visual aids​

●​ Manipulatives and math tools ready for hands-on use​

🧩
Mathematics + Play = Fun Learning

🔄 Why Play Matters:

●​ Builds cognitive skills​

●​ Helps children understand abstract concepts through experience​

●​ Encourages involvement and engagement​

●​ Makes maths enjoyable and meaningful​

●​ Supports concrete to abstract understanding​

🧸
Play-Based Maths Activities Might Include:

●​ Counting games​

●​ Shape puzzles​

●​ Sorting and matching activities​

●​ Number songs and rhymes​

●​ Building blocks or pattern tiles​

💡
Final Tips for an Effective FP Maths Environment:
1.​ Make learning collaborative and independent​
 2.​ Encourage learners to make mistakes and learn from them​

3.​ Use age-appropriate, hands-on resources​

4.​ Foster a space that promotes exploration and discovery​

📚
Selecting Appropriate Learning
Resources in Foundation Phase
Mathematics

🎯
What Are Learning Resources?
In the Foundation Phase, learning resources are tools that help children understand
mathematics in a fun, hands-on, and visual way.

🔹 Examples:
●​ Textbooks & Workbooks – for structured content and practice​

●​ Manipulatives – e.g. counting beads, base ten blocks​

●​ Visual Aids – charts, number posters, diagrams​

●​ Games & Activities – to make learning playful and interactive​

✅
Importance of Using the Right Resources

Why are

appropriate resources

important?

●​ They support understanding of key concepts​

●​ Help engage young learners​

●​ Are matched to the child’s age and development​

●​ Promote active learning through play and exploration​

●​ Allow for different learning styles and paces​

●​ Encourage social interaction and teamwork​

●​ Make abstract ideas concrete and easier to grasp​

🚫
What Makes a Resource Inappropriate?
●​ Too advanced or too basic for the child’s developmental stage​

●​ Lacking interactivity​

●​ Not inclusive (doesn’t cater to all learners)​

●​ Too complex in language or design​

●​ Not age-appropriate (e.g. formal assessments for very young learners)​

 ●​ Doesn’t encourage play, curiosity, or exploration​

🧠
What Does “Developmentally Appropriate” Mean?
Resources must:

●​ Be interactive​

●​ Use age-appropriate content​

●​ Encourage exploration​

●​ Fit the child’s cognitive and physical development​

●​ Allow for inclusive learning (different abilities)​

●​ Support social learning​

🧮
Examples of Developmentally Appropriate Resources
by Content Area:

🔢 Numbers, Operations & Relationships:

●​ Counting blocks​

●​ Number cards & charts​

 ●​ Flashcards​

●​ Math board games​

●​ Tracing worksheets​

●​ Beans, bottle caps, buttons​

●​ Whiteboards and markers​

●​ Pegs, balls, toys​

🔁 Patterns:
●​ Beads and strings for threading​

●​ Coloured paper cutouts​

●​ Lego blocks​

●​ Pattern strips or templates​

●​ Natural materials (leaves, shells)​

◼️ Space & Shape:

●​ Shape puzzles​

●​ 3D objects (cubes, spheres, etc.)​

●​ Building blocks​

●​ Tangrams​

●​ Cut-out shapes for sorting and grouping​

📏 Measurement:
 ●​ Rulers (non-standard units like blocks or fingers first)​

●​ Scales and measuring cups​

●​ Containers for capacity​

●​ Stopwatch or sand timers​

●​ Thermometers (with visuals)​

📊 Data Handling:
●​ Picture graphs and bar charts​

●​ Sorting trays​

●​ Tally counters​

●​ Clipboards and stickers​

●​ Surveys and class vote activities​

📝
Assessment Strategies in the
Foundation Phase

🔍
What is Assessment?
Assessment is a systematic process of collecting and interpreting information about
learners’ progress to:

●​ Improve teaching and learning​

●​ Support individual learner development​

●​ Measure curriculum outcomes​

📘
According to CAPS (DBE, 2011):
“Assessment is a continuous, planned process using various forms to
gather and interpret learner performance.”

🎯
Purposes of Assessment:
●​ Guide teaching methods​

●​ Identify learner needs and challenges​

●​ Evaluate curriculum effectiveness​

●​ Understand what learners know and can do​

🔄
Types of Assessment:

1.

Pre-assessment

●​ Done before new learning​

●​ Checks prior knowledge​

​
🟰 Example: Moving from repeated addition to multiplication​
2.

Informal Assessment

●​ Unstructured & ongoing​

●​ Everyday classroom interactions​

​
📌 Not recorded formally​
​
🧸 Examples: Pretend play, exit slips, discussions​
3.

Formal Assessment

●​ Structured with criteria​

●​ Results are recorded for reporting​

​
🗂 Examples: Baseline, Diagnostic, Endline Assessments​

🧪
Assessment Purposes (by Function):

✔️
Formative Assessment

(Assessment

for

learning)

●​ Supports learning during instruction​

●​ Gives feedback to improve understanding​

🧾
Summative Assessment

(Assessment

of

learning)

●​ Conducted at the end of a period​

●​ Measures what was learned​

🎨
Characteristics of Effective Assessment:
 ●​ Age-appropriate​

●​ Developmentally suitable​

●​ Uses various forms​

●​ Covers content in multiple ways​

●​ Avoids language-heavy tasks unless needed​

●​ Matches skills/concepts to learner stage​

📚
Forms of Assessment in the Foundation Phase:
●​ Oral – e.g. verbal counting, explanations​

●​ Practical – e.g. using manipulatives​

●​ Written – e.g. drawing shapes, writing numbers​

🔧
Assessment Tools:
●​ Observation notes​

●​ Checklists​

●​ Rubrics​
 ●​ Rating scales​

🤝
Assessment Methods:
●​ Teacher assessment​

●​ Peer assessment​

●​ Group assessment​

●​ Self-assessment​

🔁
Continuous Assessment (CASS) in Grades R–3:
●​ Makes up 100% of learner achievement​

●​ Includes both formal and informal assessment​

●​ Done regularly and over time​

●​ Not all assessments need to be recorded​

●​ Focuses on development, growth, and feedback​

●​ Allows for integrated and summative assessment​

●​ Adapts to diverse learner needs​

🧩
Assessment Structure:

🗂️
Recording:

●​ Teacher’s portfolio​

●​ Learner’s books/files​

●​ Assessment boxes (posters, worksheets)​

📋
Reporting:

●​ Report cards​

●​ Parent interviews or phone calls​

●​ Open days and letters​

🗓️
Planning:

1.​ Learning Programme​

2.​ Work Schedule​

3.​ Lesson Plan​

🧠
Programme of Assessment:

●​ Outlines formal assessment tasks for each subject area​

🧑‍🏫
Classroom Management in Foundation
Phase Mathematics

✅
What is Classroom Management?
Classroom management is the process teachers use to ensure that lessons:

●​ Run smoothly​

●​ Are disruption-free​

●​ Deliver effective instruction​

🌟
Why is Classroom Management Important?
 ●​ Creates a positive learning environment​

●​ Enhances focus and learning​

●​ Promotes respect and responsibility​

●​ Reduces behavioural problems​

●​ Builds positive relationships between teacher and learners​

🧠
Managing Common Behavioural Issues

Scenario 1:

Problem: A learner calls out answers without raising their hand.

Strategy:

●​ Calmly remind the class of the rule (e.g. “Raise your hand before speaking”)​

●​ Use non-verbal cues (e.g. eye contact or hand signal)​

●​ Praise learners who follow the rule​

●​ Speak privately with the learner if behaviour continues​

Scenario 2:

Problem: Some learners are disengaged during a math discussion.

Strategy:

●​ Ask open-ended questions to quieter learners​

 ●​ Use think-pair-share or small group work​

●​ Create a safe space for all voices to be heard​

●​ Incorporate games or manipulatives to spark interest​

🏫
Key Strategies for Effective Classroom Management

1.

Class Rules

●​ Involve learners in creating them​

●​ Make them clear and consistent​

●​ Reinforce them with positive reinforcement, not fear​

2.

Planning & Preparation

●​ Have lessons and materials ready before class​

●​ Prepare visuals, manipulatives, games, etc.​

3.

Routine

●​ Establish daily routines​

 ●​ Helps learners feel safe, know what to expect​

●​ Builds discipline and independence​

4.

Feedback & Cues

●​ Use non-verbal cues (e.g. smile, thumbs up, silent signal)​

●​ Give immediate positive feedback for good behaviour​

5.

Organisation

●​ Neatly arranged classroom promotes focus​

●​ Use efficient time management​

6.

Engaging Lessons

●​ Keep activities interactive​

●​ Use fun, real-life examples​

●​ Vary your teaching methods (songs, movement, stories)​