Visual Navigation
Made Practical..
(Part 1).
This presentation is intended to be used in conjunction with Guidance
Note 18.
Definition :-
• Navigation is the art of directing the movement of an aircraft through
the air to achieve a specified track over the ground and arrival at the
destination on time.
• Visual navigation implies the use of a time-based deduced reckoning
technique, updated by visual fixes.
Philosophy ( The Pilot-
Navigators Problem).
• Navigation may be achieved by map reading alone (“Feature
Crawling”) OR,
• Deduced Reckoning (DED) in which the aircraft’s position is deduced
from the heading and speed flown applied over time. ( “Heading,
Speed & Time = Position”).
• Neither method is satisfactory if used in Isolation. DED reckoning is
prone to error if any element of the triangle of velocities is
inaccurate, i.e. wind speed & direction and feature crawling relies on
a supply of identifiable features on the ground and requires constant
map-reading.
Triangle of Velocities:
Heading (090) & Tas.(120Kts)
FAPA FAEL
10 ° Right Drift.
Max Drift occurs at 90 °
Max Drift Form:- W/V_____
TAS (nm per min)
20 Wind :-
120/60=2 2 360/20
Track (100) & Answer:- 10°
Groundspeed
(120Kts).
Result
Solving the triangle of velocities with the
“whizz-wheel” – wind down method!:- True
course 090° & W/V 360/20.
1st Step – rotate wheel
to align wind direction
under “True Index”
2nd Step – Align sliding
ruler with TAS in the
middle Gromit.
3rd Step – Draw a line
downwards by the
appropriate speed(20).
4th Step – Rotate wheel to
align the True Heading(090°)
at the top under “True
Index”
5th Step – Note the drift line
at the end of the “wind
Vertical Arrow”:-(10°).
drift
lines
W/V – 360/20
We can now observe that a heading of
090° with a wind direction of 360/20 will
result in 10° right drift.
6th Step – Rotate wheel 10° to
the left to compensate for the
10° right Drift, i.e. new
heading is 080°.
7th Step – The end of the wind
arrow now points to the new
groundspeed, 118Kts.
Horizontal
Groundspeed lines.
Conclusion:- Required HDG. is 080° with
a 118KT Groundspeed to compensate
for the W/V 360/20 on a true course of
090°.
Event Technique:-
• The event technique ensures that the pilot, while flying the aircraft,
allocates his time sensibly between navigation, airmanship checks and
maintaining a good lookout.
• The airborne technique is to work from Clock to Map to
Event/Ground. Once an event has taken place, the pilot should
mentally note the time to the next event. N.B!! Until that time (or
shortly before), the pilot should concentrate on accurate flying,
(Heading, Altitude & Lookout) and should not need to consult the
map.
3 Step Event Tech.
2. How far is the “event”
map from my start position?
Distance
3. Am I Early, Late, or Ground –
on time? Am I left,
update ETA clock
right, or on track with
this Heading? 1. How long will it take
Groundspeed Time me to fly to the “Event?”
Chart Preparation:-
• For ab-initio navigation instruction in light aircraft, the 1:500,000 scale
is most appropriate. For longer trips at higher altitudes, the
1:1000,000 scale is more suitable.
• Charts should be uncluttered, clear and contain only information that
assists the pilot to navigate practically and expeditiously.
Chart Preparation Continued:-
• Track Line:-
Use a fine tipped pen and leave a circle of radius 3NM free of all lines around the Start
point, Turning points and the Destination.
• Distance Scale:-
The track line should be marked at suitable distance intervals, (typically every 10Nm for
slow speed aircraft). Such a scale allows the pilot to convert elapsed time to a position
along the track.
• Proportional Division & Checkpoints/Features:-
Revisions to ETA and track error corrections are greatly simplified if position can be
fixed at equal intervals along the track, E.g. ¼, ½.
Pick prominent ground features as fixes along the track route (Route Study).
Annotate features/fixes along the track by leaving a gap in the track line and mark them
with EET and Distance from the start point.
Chart Preparation Continued:-
• Track Error & Closing Angle Bearing Lines:-
A Track Error line emanating from the start point at 10⁰ and a closing angle
line, emanating from the destination at 10⁰ should be drawn to allow the
ready estimation of TE or CA when fixing position. These lines should only be
drawn on one side of the track line, extending no further than the half-way
mark and should be “pecked” to avoid obscuring the chart.
• Wind Feather:-
A directionally accurate wind feather should be drawn on the chart, annotated
with the Max Drift expected for the TAS of the aircraft.
• Start Point:-
Where it is not possible to begin the route overhead the departure
aerodrome, plan the transit to a suitable start point.
Route Study:-
• Attention should be given to studying the principal features along the route, so
that a full mental picture is built up. E.g.
General location
Coastline and water features (Large Dams)
Built up areas (Towns)
Railways & Roads
Special Features
During route study, suitable features should be selected to be used as fixes. The
value and reliability of a feature for fixing depends upon its uniqueness, size, and
contrast in relation to the surrounding area.
Route Study Cont.
Line features (Ex. Roads) perpendicular to the track required are most
useful as timing checkpoints; line features paralleling track lend
themselves to the determination of track error.
Fixes should ideally be spaced at 12-min. intervals, to give a rate of 5
fixes per hour.
Flight Planning & the Nav. Log:
• The planning log is divided into 6 sections:
Flight Details
Speed
NOTAMS
Route planning
Fuel
Weather
Flight Planning Continued:-
• Speed:
A power setting suitable for the task is to be chosen, RPM and expected
fuel flow are to be recorded. An expected TAS is to be derived from the
manufacturer’s performance graphs (POH) for the chosen power
setting.
Headings to steer and expected groundspeeds are to be calculated for
each leg using estimated or forecast winds. This can be achieved by
either using the Circular slide Rule (Whizz-Wheel) or by Mental
[Link] techniques.
Flight Planning Continued:-
• Selecting a Cruising Height:
This is dependent on many variables, including
Terrain & obstacles
Cloud Base
Winds
Visibility
Aircraft Performance
Airspace
VHF Radio reception
Minimum height rules
Semi-Circular Rule (Not applicable below 1500ft above ground level).
Flight Planning Continued:-
• Fuel Planning: (Refer to CAR Part 91 for more detail):-
The required fuel matrix is comprised as follows;
Trip fuel (sum of the required fuel for all legs)
Contingency fuel (5% of trip fuel)
Diversion fuel (Enough to divert to the furthest option)
Final Reserve fuel (Minimum landing fuel – 45mins)
Extra fuel (At Pilots discretion for operational considerations)
The Flight Log:- (Reverse side
for planning).
The Flight Log:- (Front side – In
Flight Use).
Let’s Begin with an Example:-
Today we are going to plan a flight from Port Alfred (FAPA) to Fort Beaufort
(FAFO).
We have selected FL055 according to the semi-circular rule, terrain
clearance and various other factors. The weather conditions are CAVOK
with forecast winds of 200/30 (aviation weather web site) at our Flight
Level.
Note: As we are electing to fly at a FL we will be setting the subscale
setting to QNE 1013 on the Altimeter once passing the transition altitude.
This requires that we plan to fly at a level of at least 1500ft above the
highest obstacle within 5nm of our track line.
1. Draw a line from an
appropriate start
point to the
destination.
2. Align the protractor in the
middle of the track line &
ensure lines of Latitude &
Longitude are parallel with
the protractor.
3. Note True Track of 338°.
4. True track(338°) + Variation(27°W) =
Magnetic Track (005°).
5. Select an appropriate feature to use
as a position fix. This feature coincides
well with the ½ way point. Annotate
the track line to not obscure the map.
6. Align your protractor North up on
your track line.
7. Draw a pecked drift line 10° left or
right of your track line up till the ½ way
mark. Repeat this step from the
destination point on the other side of
the track line.
8. Draw in a directionally accurate wind feather
annotated with the max drift appropriate to
the TAS of the aircraft and the barbs to indicate
wind speed. Eg. TAS 100Kt; W/V 200/30.
Therefore max drift is 30 ÷ 1.6=18°.
W/V:- 200/30
Aircraft TAS 100kt.
W/V:- 30Kt.
Twist wheel to
True Heading:-
338°
Drift:- 10° Right.
W/V:- 200/30
True Heading:- 328° ( Alter
Heading 10° to the left to
compensate for the 10° right
drift.
Groundspeed:- 121Kt. (This is
the effect of the tailwind from
the left – 200/30).
True Hdg 338° minus 10° right drift
due to W/V 200/30= new True Hdg
328° and a groundspeed of 121Kt.
True Hdg. 328° + 27°W variation
= Magnetic Hdg. 355°
Density Altitude = 6095 due
to ISA + 5°C.
Enter Performance graphs at
DA 6095 in POH for power
settings etc.
1. Total Distance from Round
Hill to FAFO = 40Nm.
2. Distance to abeam ground
feature:- 20Nm.
Note 10Nm distance intervals
to allow the pilot to convert 3. Time to abeam ground
elapsed time to a position feature:- 0:10min @
along the track! groundspeed of 121Kt.
Leg Time to FAFO is 0:20mins. (Time is equal
to Distance divide by speed). I.E. 40Nm divide
by 2Nm per min = 20mins.
Semi-Circular rule:- Magnetic
track btw 360⁰-179⁰=Odd
FL+500 / 180⁰ -
359⁰=EvenFL+500.
Planned Flight Level is noted
according to Semi-Circular
rule, terrain clearance and
other factors.
Calculate Fuel Planning as per CAR
Part 91. Fuel calculated at 7.0 US
G.P.H. with a 60% Power Setting.
Refer to performance graphs in the
POH.
Transfer all relevant Information
to the front side of the Nav Log
Next:-
In Flight Technique:-
• Start Point/ Turning point procedures:- 30secs prior to reaching start point
ensure DI is aligned with the compass & wings level. Correct set heading
procedure is essential to accurate Navigation! The following should be used.
Time: Start the stopwatch or note the UTC time to correlate distance along the
track overhead the start point.
Turn: Onto the required Magnetic Heading(355°), check general direction is
correct (i.e. 033⁰ or 330⁰) and orientation with expected features.
Task: Complete the In- flight Nav. Log to include ETA and fuel check.
Make necessary Radio calls.
Complete En-route checks – “FREDA” – Complete fuel Log.
3 Step In Flight
Technique:- 2. How far is the “event”
from my start position?
map
Distance
3. Am I Early, Late, or Ground –
on time? Am I left,
update ETA clock
right, or on track with
this Heading? 1. How long will it take
Groundspeed Time me to fly to the “Event?”
Maintain Hdg 355°, monitor
Altitude and keep a good lookout
until you can fix position at your
first Checkpoint/Feature. EET to
Time to
fix position is 0:10mins.
Feature(10Mins).
Set Hdg Procedure:-DI to
compass first – wings level.
1. Time: Start stopwatch or
note UTC time: 06:20Z
Distance to
2. Turn: onto Magnetic Hdg.
Feature(20nm)
355⁰.
3. Task: Radio call, update Nav.
Log.
Plan the transit to a
suitable start point (i.e.
Round Hill) as part of the
navigation exercise.
Task: Complete Nav Log at a
safe appropriate time.
Sequence of events are as
follows:-
3. Check fuel
gauge. Note fuel
remaining vs fuel
1. Note UTC Time when required.
overhead Start Point & 2. Note ETA for
NOT BEFORE! Start FAFO(06:40Z).i.e. 06:20
stopwatch or simply add + 0:20 EET=06:40Z
time. Note ETA in top half of
the split box.
Fixing Position & Map Reading:-
• Create a mental picture of what your pre-planned fixes should look like in
accordance with the event technique. Resist the temptation to continuously
map-read as this will effect both lookout and flying accuracy!
• Orient the map track-up and hold it up to eye-level in the cockpit.
• The correct navigation work-cycle is: clock to map to ground!
• Use time and distance marks on the chart to anticipate the selected features.
• Work from large general features to local area and finally specific landmarks
to fix position. i.e. “Big picture to Little picture”.
• Position can be deduced from triangulation using relative bearing from 2 or
more large obvious features.
Refining the D.R. Solution:-
• Since planned headings and times have been calculated using estimated
values; track and timing errors are inevitable. Pilots should expect small
track and groundspeed errors to develop.
• By comparing actual position with expected position, the error is found
and by simple calculation heading and groundspeed can be refined to
the exact values.
• Once an accurate navigation solution has been found the pilot need only
maintain Hdg. & speed for the appropriate time to achieve track &
destination.
• This is the art of Navigation:- logical calculation of Hdg. & time rather
than track crawling and impulse.
Track Error correction
Techniques:-
• Track error (TE) is the angle between Track required(Treq) and Track
Made Good (TMG). TMG is the actual track that the aircraft is flying
over the ground.
• By map reading and “fixing” the aircraft position (either at a pre-
planned position or an opportunity fix) and using the 10⁰ TE drift
guide lines drawn on the chart, TE can now be readily estimated.
Double Track
Error Method:
(Up to ½ way TE 5° Left after 5min; Alter HDG
Initial HDG
090° Point). 10° Double TE(10°) Right. Steer 100°
for a further 5min to regain track.
FAPA FAEL
TMG:- Aircraft’s
actual track over
the ground.
On track. Alter HDG 5° Left. New
revised HDG 095°. N.B!! Do not
return to initial HDG 090°.
Track Error(TE)+ Closing
Angle(CA) Method:-
• The TE + CA method adjusts heading to make good a track from the
aircraft’s position directly to the destination.
• This technique is useful from beyond the ½ way point, where Dbl. TE
method would be inappropriate.
• Having fixed position, estimate by inspection the TE from the
departure point and the CA to the destination point using the 10⁰ drift
lines.
• Adjust the heading by the sum of the TE + CA values to route directly
to the destination.
TE + CA
Example.
Aircraft’s position
10° TE Drift Aircraft’s
fixed beyond ½
Line. TMG.
point.
Initial Hdg:-
090.
FAPA FAEL
Solution:- By Inspection TE is 5° off from departure
point and CA is 10° off from destination. Therefore aircraft
must alter Hdg 15°(5 + 10) to the right, Steer HDG 105° for
the remainder of the leg time to Destination.
In Flight
Example!!
3. Write down observations on flight
note section of Nav Log. Amend ETA
1. Position fixed
and use Dbl. drift error correction or TE
at 06:32Z
+ CA to calculate new Hdg. For FAFO.
2. By observation
we can see that
we are ± 6°Right
off track & 2mins
late. Aircrafts flight path
over 12mins (TMG).
Update Nav Log with observations in
the flight note section.
3. Write down new
2. Update Groundspeed and re-calculate a
ETA in bottom ½ of 1. Time of observation is 06:32Z with ±
new ETA for FAFO. We have fixed position
the split box. 6° Right drift. Using Dbl. drift error
at a suitable feature at the ½ way point
(06:32 + correction (6 x 2 = 12°) alter heading 12°
after 12mins therefore total leg time is
12mins=06:44Z). left. Action is a new corrected Hdg of
now 24mins and not 20mins as per our
343°.
planning.
Using the “Whizz-
Wheel” to Distance
calculate Travelled, 20 nm.
Groundspeed and
ETA. Time Taken,
12mins.
Read
Groundspeed
opposite the “60”
rate box:- i.e.
100Kt.
Once the groundspeed has been calculated
simply read off the distance remaining on
the outside perimeter and read off time to
travel on the inside. E.g. 30nm remaining
will take 18min @ 100Kt.
That Concludes Part 1.
• If necessary please consult with your Instructor on any aspects of this
presentation that you were unable to understand.
• The next presentation (Part 2) will include Diversions, Mental Ded
Reckoning (MDR), Hazard avoidance, Uncertainty of position and LOST
procedure.
