Module 2- Bio-energies

The key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are:

Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

No true nucleus; DNA is

True nucleus enclosed by a nuclear
Nucleus located in the nucleoid
membrane
region

Size Generally smaller (1-10 µm) Larger (10-100 µm)

Cellular Mostly unicellular organisms Can be unicellular or multicellular (e.g.,

Organization (e.g., bacteria, archaea) plants, animals, fungi, protists)

Circular DNA without

DNA Structure Linear DNA associated with histone proteins
histones

Contains membrane-bound organelles such

Membrane-bound No membrane-bound
as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
Organelles organelles
Golgi apparatus

Ribosomes Smaller (70S) Larger (80S)

Cell Division Binary fission Mitosis or meiosis

Present in most, composed

Present in plants (cellulose) and fungi
Cell Wall of peptidoglycan (in
(chitin); absent in animal cells
bacteria)

Well-developed cytoskeleton (microtubules,

Cytoskeleton Absent or minimal
microfilaments)

Simple structure, made of Complex structure, made of microtubules

Flagella
flagellin (9+2 arrangement)

Metabolism Anaerobic or aerobic Mostly aerobic

Animal Cell
The animal cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life in animals. Composed of
various organelles, each with distinct roles, the cell functions as a complex and efficient system
that sustains life. Unlike plant cells, animal cells lack a cell wall and chloroplasts, but they
possess unique organelles that perform essential tasks, contributing to growth, energy
production, and reproduction.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 Figure: Animal cell structure

Cell Membrane

The cell membrane or plasma membrane is a selectively permeable boundary that surrounds
the cell. It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and
carbohydrates. The major functions of the cell membrane include:

• Selective Permeability: It controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell,
allowing essential nutrients to enter and waste products to leave while preventing
harmful substances from entering.
• Cell Communication: Membrane proteins act as receptors that receive chemical signals
from other cells, facilitating communication and coordination within tissues.
• Cell Recognition: Glycoproteins and glycolipids on the cell membrane surface help the
cell to recognize and interact with neighboring cells.
• Structural Support: Although animal cells lack a rigid cell wall, the cell membrane,
supported by the cytoskeleton, helps maintain cell shape.

Figure: Cell membrane

2. Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the semi-fluid substance that fills the cell, consisting of cytosol (the liquid
part), water, salts, and proteins. It houses all the organelles and provides a medium where
biochemical reactions occur. The main functions of the cytoplasm are:

• Support and Suspension: It supports and suspends the organelles within the cell.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 • Molecular Transport: Nutrients, waste products, and other substances are transported
through the cytoplasm.
• Facilitation of Chemical Reactions: Many metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis, occur
within the cytoplasm, making it vital for cellular metabolism.

3. Nucleus

The nucleus is the control center of the cell and contains the cell's genetic material (DNA). It is
surrounded by the nuclear envelope, a double membrane with pores that regulate the exchange
of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Key components of the nucleus include:

• Nucleoplasm: The substance within the nucleus, containing chromatin and the
nucleolus.
• Chromatin: A complex of DNA and proteins (histones), which condense to form
chromosomes during cell division.
• Nucleolus: A dense region within the nucleus responsible for synthesizing ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and assembling ribosomes.

The nucleus performs several critical functions:

• Regulation of Gene Expression: It controls cell activities by regulating which genes are
expressed and when.
• Storage of Genetic Information: The DNA within the nucleus contains the instructions
for protein synthesis and cell replication.
• Cell Division: The nucleus controls the cell cycle, including cell growth, DNA
replication, and division (mitosis and meiosis).

Figure: structure of nucleus

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

4. Mitochondria

Mitochondria are the energy producers of the cell, often referred to as the "powerhouses" of the
cell. They are double-membraned organelles with an outer membrane and a highly folded
inner membrane, called cristae, that increases the surface area for energy production. Their
primary function is:

• ATP Production: Through a process called cellular respiration, mitochondria convert

glucose and oxygen into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's energy currency.
• Regulation of Metabolism: Mitochondria play a central role in the cell’s metabolism by
regulating the energy supply needed for various functions.
• Apoptosis: Mitochondria are involved in programmed cell death, or apoptosis, which is
essential for maintaining tissue health and preventing the proliferation of damaged cells.

Mitochondria also have their own DNA, inherited maternally, and can replicate independently
of the cell, supporting the endosymbiotic theory.

Figure: Structure of Mitochondria

5. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranous tubules and sacs extending from
the nuclear envelope throughout the cytoplasm. It is involved in the synthesis of lipids and
proteins. There are two types of ER:

• Rough ER (RER): Studded with ribosomes, the rough ER is primarily involved in the
synthesis and folding of proteins, particularly those destined for the membrane or
secretion.
• Smooth ER (SER): Lacking ribosomes, the smooth ER is involved in:
o Lipid and Steroid Synthesis: It synthesizes lipids such as phospholipids and
cholesterol.
o Detoxification: The smooth ER in liver cells helps detoxify drugs and poisons.
o Calcium Storage: In muscle cells, the smooth ER stores calcium ions, which are
essential for muscle contraction.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 Figure: Structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum

6. Ribosomes

Ribosomes are small, non-membranous organelles composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
proteins. They can be found freely floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.
Ribosomes are essential for:

• Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes translate the genetic instructions carried by messenger

RNA (mRNA) into amino acid sequences, forming polypeptide chains that fold into
functional proteins.

Ribosomes are essential for building the proteins that carry out nearly every function within the
cell.

Figure: Structure of Ribosomes

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

7. Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi body or Golgi complex, is a series of flattened,
membrane-bound sacs that modify, package, and transport proteins and lipids. The functions
of the Golgi apparatus include:

• Modification of Proteins: It modifies proteins received from the rough ER by adding

carbohydrates (glycosylation) or other molecules, forming glycoproteins.
• Sorting and Packaging: It sorts proteins and lipids into vesicles and packages them for
delivery to their final destinations, either within the cell or for secretion outside the cell.
• Formation of Lysosomes: The Golgi also produces lysosomes, the digestive organelles.

Figure: Structure of Golgi Complex

8. Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes that digest

macromolecules. Their primary functions include:

• Intracellular Digestion: Lysosomes break down cellular waste, damaged organelles, and
foreign materials such as bacteria, thus maintaining cellular cleanliness.
• Autophagy: Lysosomes recycle cell components through a process called autophagy,
where old or damaged organelles are degraded and their components are reused.
• Apoptosis: Involved in programmed cell death by releasing enzymes that degrade
cellular components.

Lysosomes are critical for maintaining the health and functionality of the cell by removing waste
and recycling materials.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 Figure: Structure of Lysosomes

9. Centrosomes and Centrioles

The centrosome is the major microtubule-organizing center of the cell, playing a crucial role
during cell division. It contains a pair of centrioles, cylindrical structures composed of
microtubules. Functions include:

• Microtubule Organization: Centrosomes organize microtubules during interphase and

direct the formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division.
• Cell Division: During mitosis, centrosomes help ensure that chromosomes are equally
distributed between the two daughter cells.

10. Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton is a dynamic network of protein filaments, including microfilaments (actin

filaments), intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Its functions include:

• Maintaining Cell Shape: It provides structural support to maintain the cell's shape.
• Facilitating Movement: The cytoskeleton enables cellular movement, both of the entire
cell (as in muscle cells) and intracellular movement of organelles.
• Intracellular Transport: Motor proteins, such as kinesin and dynein, move along the
cytoskeleton to transport vesicles and organelles.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

11. Vesicles and Vacuoles

Vesicles are small, membrane-bound sacs that transport materials within the cell or to the cell
membrane for secretion. Their functions include:

• Transport: Vesicles move proteins, lipids, and other materials between organelles and
the cell surface.
• Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Vesicles play roles in processes like endocytosis (uptake of
materials into the cell) and exocytosis (expulsion of materials out of the cell).

Vacuoles in animal cells are generally smaller than those in plant cells and serve functions in:

• Storage: They store nutrients, waste products, and other materials.

• Isolation: Vacuoles can isolate harmful materials from the rest of the cell.

Plants and Their Cellular Structure

Plants are essential to life on Earth, providing oxygen through photosynthesis, acting as the
foundation of food chains, and playing a vital role in the global ecosystem. At a microscopic
level, plants are composed of cells, the basic unit of life, just like in animals. However, plant
cells have unique structures and organelles that support their functions in photosynthesis,
storage, and growth, which differ from those found in animal cells.

Plant cells, like all eukaryotic cells, have membrane-bound organelles that carry out specific
functions. However, plant cells have some unique organelles like cell walls, chloroplasts, and
large central vacuoles, which allow them to perform specialized functions such as
photosynthesis and structural support. This detailed exploration provides insights into the
organelles of a plant cell and their vital roles.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

[Link] Wall

One of the most distinguishing features of plant cells is the cell wall, a rigid layer that surrounds
the cell membrane. It is primarily composed of cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer, and
provides structural support and protection. The main functions of the cell wall include:

• Structural Support: The cell wall gives plant cells a fixed shape and protects them from
mechanical damage and osmotic stress.
• Regulation of Growth: The cell wall controls the rate and direction of cell growth,
allowing plants to maintain a stable and rigid structure.
• Defence: The cell wall acts as a barrier against pathogens and regulates the entry of
substances into the cell.
• Communication: Small channels called plasmodesmata are present in the cell wall,
which allow communication and transport of materials between adjacent plant cells.

Figure: Structure of plant cell

2. Cell Membrane

The cell membrane in plant cells lies just inside the cell wall. It is a semi-permeable
phospholipid bilayer that controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell. Its main
functions include:

• Selective Permeability: The cell membrane regulates the intake of water, ions, and
nutrients while preventing harmful substances from entering the cell.
• Transport of Nutrients: Membrane proteins help facilitate the movement of large
molecules across the membrane through processes like facilitated diffusion and active
transport.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 • Cell Signaling: The cell membrane contains receptors that detect external signals,
helping the cell to respond to environmental stimuli.

3. Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that fills the interior of the plant cell. It consists of
cytosol, a water-based solution, and houses the cell’s organelles. It provides a medium for
biochemical processes and enables the movement of materials within the cell. Functions of the
cytoplasm include:

• Support: The cytoplasm supports the organelles, allowing them to remain in position
and function properly.
• Transport: Molecules and ions diffuse through the cytoplasm to reach different parts of
the cell.
• Facilitating Reactions: Many metabolic reactions, including glycolysis, occur in the
cytoplasm.

4. Nucleus

The nucleus is the control center of the plant cell, containing the cell's genetic material (DNA)
that guides all cellular activities. The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope, a double
membrane that separates it from the cytoplasm, and contains nuclear pores for the exchange of
materials with the cytoplasm. Functions of the nucleus include:

• Regulation of Gene Expression: The nucleus controls gene expression and, therefore,
the production of proteins.
• Storage of Genetic Material: The DNA housed within the nucleus contains instructions
for cell growth, reproduction, and metabolism.
• Ribosome Production: The nucleolus, found inside the nucleus, produces ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and assembles ribosomes, essential for protein synthesis.

5. Chloroplasts

Unique to plant cells, chloroplasts are double-membraned organelles responsible for

photosynthesis. Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which captures light
energy from the sun. Their main functions include:

• Photosynthesis: Chloroplasts convert light energy, carbon dioxide, and water into
glucose and oxygen through photosynthesis. This process occurs in the thylakoid
membranes where light-dependent reactions take place, while the stroma is where the
Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions) occurs.
• Energy Production: The glucose produced in chloroplasts serves as a source of energy
for the plant cell.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 • Pigment Storage: Chloroplasts store pigments like chlorophyll, which not only aid in
photosynthesis but also give plants their green color.

Chloroplasts also have their own DNA and can replicate independently, similar to
mitochondria, suggesting an evolutionary origin from symbiotic bacteria.

6. Mitochondria

Although chloroplasts produce energy through photosynthesis, plant cells also have
mitochondria, which are responsible for generating ATP through cellular respiration.
Mitochondria are double-membraned organelles with folded inner membranes called cristae,
increasing the surface area for energy production. Their functions include:

• ATP Production: Mitochondria convert glucose and oxygen into ATP, which is used as
the energy currency of the cell.
• Cell Metabolism: They play a central role in plant cell metabolism by regulating the
energy supply for various functions.
• Cell Death: Mitochondria are involved in apoptosis, or programmed cell death, which
is essential for eliminating damaged cells.

7. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive network of membranous tubules within the
cytoplasm, which plays a role in the synthesis and transport of materials within the cell. It exists
in two forms:

• Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, the rough ER is responsible for synthesizing and
processing proteins. These proteins may be secreted from the cell or integrated into the
cell membrane.
• Smooth ER: Lacking ribosomes, the smooth ER synthesizes lipids, including
phospholipids and steroids. It also plays a role in detoxifying harmful substances and
storing calcium ions.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

8. Ribosomes

Ribosomes are non-membrane-bound organelles responsible for protein synthesis. Ribosomes

can be found floating freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER. Their primary
function is to translate mRNA into polypeptide chains, which fold into functional proteins.

9. Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus, or Golgi complex, consists of a series of flattened membrane-bound sacs.
It is the cell's packaging and distribution center, performing functions such as:

• Protein and Lipid Modification: The Golgi modifies proteins and lipids received from
the ER, adding carbohydrates to form glycoproteins.
• Sorting and Packaging: It sorts and packages proteins and lipids into vesicles for
transport to their final destinations, either within the cell or for secretion outside the
cell.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

[Link]

A prominent feature of plant cells is the central vacuole, a large, membrane-bound sac that
occupies a significant portion of the cell's volume. It serves multiple important functions:

• Storage: The vacuole stores water, nutrients, ions, and waste products.
• Turgor Pressure: The vacuole helps maintain turgor pressure, which keeps the plant
cell rigid and supports the plant's structure.
• Detoxification: It stores harmful substances and helps in their detoxification.
• Cell Growth: As the vacuole absorbs water, it expands, helping the cell grow without
requiring the synthesis of additional cytoplasm.

11. Plastids

Apart from chloroplasts, plant cells contain other types of plastids, which are specialized
organelles involved in the synthesis and storage of food:

• Leucoplasts: Colorless plastids that store starch, oils, and proteins.

• Chromoplasts: Plastids that store pigments other than chlorophyll, such as the red,
orange, and yellow pigments found in fruits and flowers.

Figure: structure of chloroplast

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

Metabolism:

Metabolism is the collective term for all the chemical reactions that occur within a living
organism to sustain life. It is the process through which the body converts food into energy,
building blocks for growth, and maintaining essential bodily functions. Every cellular activity,
from muscle contraction to cellular repair, is powered by metabolic reactions.

Metabolism can be divided into two main categories: catabolism and anabolism, each playing a
distinct role in how the body processes and uses energy.

Definition of Metabolism

Metabolism refers to the sum of all biochemical processes in living organisms, allowing them to
grow, reproduce, maintain their structure, and respond to environmental changes. It is not just
about burning calories; it includes processes for generating energy, synthesizing molecules, and
maintaining a balance between the body's various systems.

The efficiency of metabolism varies from person to person due to factors like age, gender,
genetics, and lifestyle. Some people have a fast metabolism, burning energy rapidly, while
others may have a slow metabolism, leading to the storage of excess energy as fat.

Types of Metabolism

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

There are two primary types of metabolism: catabolism and anabolism.

1. Catabolism:
o Definition: Catabolism is the process of breaking down larger molecules into
smaller units to release energy.
o Example: The breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into simpler
molecules like glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids.
o Functions:
▪ Provides energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is
essential for cellular functions.
▪ Fuels physical activities, including movement, digestion, and breathing.
▪ Produces waste products, such as carbon dioxide and urea, which are
then excreted from the body.

Examples for catabolism

o Glycolysis: The process of breaking down glucose to form ATP, pyruvate, and
NADH.
o Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle): A series of chemical reactions in the
mitochondria that generate high-energy molecules (NADH, FADH2) for ATP
production.
o Oxidative Phosphorylation: The process where electrons are transferred to
oxygen, producing water and generating ATP in large quantities.

2. Anabolism:
o Definition: Anabolism is the process of building larger, complex molecules
from smaller ones, using energy.
o Example: The synthesis of proteins from amino acids, DNA replication, and fat
storage.
o Functions:
▪ Supports cell growth, repair, and tissue maintenance.
▪ Promotes the synthesis of macromolecules like proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids, which are essential for various body functions.
▪ Facilitates the storage of energy in forms like glycogen and fat for future
use.

Examples for anabolism:

o Protein Synthesis: The formation of proteins from amino acids, crucial for
muscle growth and tissue repair.
o Lipid Synthesis: The production of fatty acids and triglycerides, which store
energy for later use and form the structure of cell membranes.
o DNA Replication: The creation of new DNA molecules during cell division,
vital for growth and reproduction.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 Anabolism and Bioenergy from Photosynthesis

Anabolism is the process by which living organisms build complex molecules from
simpler ones, typically requiring energy. In plants, algae, and certain bacteria,
photosynthesis is a prime example of an anabolic process. Through photosynthesis,
light energy is captured by chlorophyll and used to convert carbon dioxide (CO₂) and
water (H₂O) into glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂).

This process occurs in two stages: the light-dependent reactions, where solar energy is
converted into ATP and NADPH, and the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions),
where these energy molecules drive the synthesis of glucose from CO₂. Glucose serves
as a stored form of bioenergy that plants can later use for growth, repair, and
reproduction through cellular respiration.

The bioenergy generated through photosynthesis not only sustains plant life but also
forms the basis of the entire food chain. Herbivores consume plants, and carnivores, in
turn, consume herbivores, transferring this stored energy throughout ecosystems.
Moreover, the oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis is essential for
aerobic organisms, including humans. Thus, photosynthesis is a fundamental anabolic
process, creating and storing bioenergy that supports life on Earth.

Functions of Metabolism

Metabolism serves multiple essential functions in the body:

1. Energy Production:
o The primary function of metabolism is to produce energy required by cells for
various functions. Through catabolic processes, nutrients like carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats are broken down, releasing ATP, which powers cellular
activities, muscle contraction, and brain function.
2. Biosynthesis:

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 o Anabolic processes enable the synthesis of complex molecules necessary for the
body's growth, repair, and maintenance. These molecules include proteins for
tissue repair, lipids for cell membranes, and nucleic acids for genetic material.
3. Waste Elimination:
o Metabolism produces waste products such as carbon dioxide, urea, and
ammonia, which must be excreted. These waste products are removed through
respiration, urination, and sweating, maintaining the body's internal balance.
4. Maintaining Homeostasis:
o Metabolic reactions help regulate body temperature, fluid balance, and other
physiological processes that keep the body's internal environment stable. For
instance, the breakdown of glucose releases heat, helping to maintain a stable
body temperature.
5. Storage of Energy:
o Anabolism stores excess energy in the form of glycogen in the liver and muscles,
or as fat in adipose tissues. This stored energy can be utilized later when food
intake is insufficient.
6. Regulation of Body Weight:
o Metabolism plays a key role in determining body weight. A balance between
catabolism and anabolism helps maintain a healthy body weight. When energy
intake exceeds the energy expended, it results in weight gain, while the reverse
leads to weight loss.

Enzymes as Biocatalysts
Enzymes are specialized proteins that act as biocatalysts, accelerating chemical reactions in the
body without being consumed in the process. These biological catalysts play a crucial role in
regulating metabolism by lowering the activation energy required for reactions to occur,
allowing essential biochemical processes to take place efficiently at body temperature. Enzymes
are vital for nearly every physiological function, including digestion, respiration, and cellular
repair.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

Classification of Enzymes

Enzymes are classified into six major categories based on the type of reaction they catalyze:

1. Oxidoreductases: These enzymes facilitate oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, where

one molecule is oxidized while another is reduced. An example is lactate
dehydrogenase, which converts lactate to pyruvate.
2. Transferases: These enzymes catalyze the transfer of functional groups (such as
phosphate or methyl groups) between molecules. An example is hexokinase, which
adds a phosphate group to glucose during glycolysis.
3. Hydrolases: Enzymes in this class catalyze hydrolysis reactions, where water is used to
break chemical bonds. For instance, amylase breaks down starch into sugars.
4. Lyases: These enzymes remove or add groups to double bonds or catalyze the cleavage
of bonds without the use of water. An example is fumarase, which participates in the
Krebs cycle.
5. Isomerases: These enzymes catalyze structural rearrangements within a molecule. For
example, phosphoglucose isomerase converts glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-6-
phosphate in glycolysis.
6. Ligases: These enzymes catalyze the joining of two molecules with the formation of a
chemical bond, often coupled with ATP hydrolysis. An example is DNA ligase, which
joins DNA strands together during replication.

Functions of Enzymes in the Human Body

Enzymes perform a wide range of vital functions in the human body:

1. Metabolism: Enzymes drive metabolic pathways by catalyzing the conversion of

nutrients into energy, which is critical for cell survival. For example, enzymes like ATP
synthase help produce ATP during cellular respiration.
2. Digestion: Digestive enzymes break down macronutrients—carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats—into their smaller building blocks for absorption by the body. For instance, pepsin
breaks down proteins into peptides in the stomach, while lipase digests fats into fatty
acids and glycerol in the small intestine.
3. DNA Replication and Repair: Enzymes such as DNA polymerase are essential for the
accurate replication of DNA during cell division, while other enzymes like
endonucleases help repair DNA damage.
4. Detoxification: Enzymes in the liver, such as cytochrome P450, are responsible for
metabolizing toxins and drugs, making them more soluble for excretion.

Enzymes and Digestion

In digestion, enzymes play a pivotal role in breaking down food into simpler molecules for
absorption. The digestive system relies on enzymes like:

• Amylase: Breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugars. Found in saliva and the
pancreas.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 • Proteases (Pepsin, Trypsin): Break down proteins into amino acids. Pepsin works in
the stomach, while trypsin operates in the small intestine.
• Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Produced by the pancreas and
secreted into the small intestine.

These enzymes ensure that complex molecules are transformed into simpler forms that can be
absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells for energy, repair, and growth.

Enzyme-Substrate Complex

The enzyme-substrate complex is a temporary molecular structure formed when an enzyme

binds to its substrate during a biochemical reaction. This complex is a crucial intermediate
stage in the catalytic process, allowing the enzyme to convert the substrate into products. The
formation of the enzyme-substrate complex lowers the activation energy required for the
reaction, thus accelerating the rate of the reaction. This process is vital for the efficiency of
various metabolic pathways in living organisms.

Formation of the Enzyme-Substrate Complex

The formation of an enzyme-substrate complex occurs through several key steps:

1. Substrate Recognition: The enzyme recognizes and binds to its specific substrate. This
recognition is highly selective, determined by the shape, charge, and chemical
properties of the active site—the specific region of the enzyme where the substrate
binds.
2. Binding to the Active Site: Once the substrate enters the enzyme’s active site, it forms
weak non-covalent interactions (hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, ionic
interactions) with the amino acid residues of the enzyme. This precise fit between the
substrate and the enzyme creates the enzyme-substrate complex.
3. Induced Fit: After the substrate binds, the enzyme may undergo a slight conformational
change in its shape to ensure a more precise fit. This phenomenon is described by the
Induced Fit Model, which enhances the enzyme’s catalytic efficiency. The enzyme
adjusts its shape to align better with the substrate, stabilizing the transition state and
making the reaction more favorable.
4. Catalysis: With the enzyme-substrate complex formed, the enzyme catalyzes the
chemical reaction, facilitating the conversion of the substrate into products. The
enzyme lowers the activation energy required for the reaction, making the process faster
and more efficient.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 5. Release of Products: Once the reaction is complete, the products are released from the
active site, and the enzyme returns to its original shape, ready to bind to another
substrate molecule and repeat the process.

Models for Enzyme Substrate complex

Lock and Key Model

The Lock and Key Model suggests that the enzyme and its substrate fit together perfectly, like a
key fitting into a lock. The active site of the enzyme has a specific shape that is complementary
to the shape of its substrate. When the substrate binds to the enzyme, it forms an enzyme-
substrate complex that allows the reaction to proceed. This model explains the specificity of
enzymes—why a particular enzyme only works with certain substrates.

For example, the enzyme sucrase only breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose because
its active site is shaped to fit sucrose and no other sugar molecule.

Induced Fit Model

The Induced Fit Model expands on the lock and key concept by proposing that the enzyme's
active site is not a rigid structure. Instead, the enzyme undergoes a conformational change
when the substrate binds to it, adjusting its shape to better fit the substrate. This model
accounts for greater flexibility and suggests that enzymes can slightly change their shape to
facilitate the chemical reaction.

In this model, when the substrate binds, the enzyme molds itself around the substrate to form a
more precise enzyme-substrate complex, enhancing the efficiency of catalysis. After the
reaction, the enzyme returns to its original shape, ready to catalyze another reaction.

For instance, hexokinase changes its shape upon binding to glucose to facilitate the
phosphorylation of glucose in the first step of glycolysis.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

Enzyme Inhibitors

Enzyme inhibitors are molecules that reduce or block the activity of enzymes, slowing down or
halting the biochemical reactions they catalyse. By binding to the enzyme, these inhibitors can
prevent the enzyme from interacting with its substrate or reduce the efficiency of the enzyme-
substrate interaction. Inhibitors are essential in regulating metabolic pathways, and many drugs
and toxins work by inhibiting specific enzymes.

There are two primary types of enzyme inhibitors: competitive inhibitors and non-competitive
inhibitors. Both types affect enzyme activity differently, either by directly competing with the
substrate or by binding elsewhere on the enzyme.

Competitive Inhibitors

Competitive inhibition occurs when an inhibitor molecule resembles the enzyme's natural
substrate and competes with the substrate for the enzyme's active site. Since the active site can
bind either the substrate or the inhibitor, the presence of the inhibitor reduces the number of
enzyme molecules available to catalyze the reaction. However, competitive inhibition can be
overcome by increasing the concentration of the substrate. If enough substrate molecules are
present, they will outcompete the inhibitor for binding to the active site, allowing the reaction to
proceed.

Non-Competitive Inhibitors

Non-competitive inhibition occurs when an inhibitor binds to a site on the enzyme other than
the active site, known as the allosteric site. This binding changes the enzyme's conformation,
either reducing its activity or preventing it from catalyzing the reaction efficiently. Non-
competitive inhibitors do not directly compete with the substrate for the active site, so their
effect cannot be reversed by increasing substrate concentration.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

Bioenergies:
Bioenergy refers to the energy that is derived from biological sources, such as plants, animals,
and microorganisms. It is a form of renewable energy that plays a vital role in both ecosystems
and human activities, contributing to energy production, food synthesis, and metabolic
processes. Bioenergy can exist in various states, such as solid, liquid, or gas, each with specific
uses and benefits. Understanding bioenergy and its role in living organisms, especially in
cellular functions, is key to grasping its significance in both environmental and biological
contexts.

Types of Bioenergies: Solid, Liquid, and Gas

1. Solid Bioenergy: Solid bioenergy is derived from biomass, which includes organic
materials like wood, agricultural residues, and other plant materials. This energy can be
released through combustion or gasification. One common example of solid bioenergy
is firewood. When burned, the chemical energy stored in the wood is released as heat,
which can be used for cooking, heating, or generating electricity.

Example: Wood pellets are a sustainable energy source used in power plants to generate
electricity. In some rural areas, agricultural residues such as rice husks and straw are also
utilized as solid bioenergy to generate heat and power.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

 2. Liquid Bioenergy: Liquid bioenergy is derived from biofuels, such as ethanol and
biodiesel, which are created by converting organic matter. These fuels are commonly
used in the transportation sector as alternatives to fossil fuels. Ethanol is produced from
fermenting sugars found in crops like corn and sugarcane, while biodiesel is made from
vegetable oils and animal fats.

Example: Ethanol is often blended with gasoline to create E10 or E85 fuel, which is used in
flexible-fuel vehicles. Similarly, biodiesel can be used as an alternative to traditional diesel fuel
in vehicles, reducing carbon emissions.

3. Gaseous Bioenergy: Biogas is a form of gaseous bioenergy produced through the

anaerobic digestion of organic materials like food waste, animal manure, and sewage.
The key components of biogas are methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). Biogas
can be used as a fuel for heating, electricity generation, or as a vehicle fuel.

Example: Landfills often capture methane gas produced from decomposing waste materials
and convert it into energy. Similarly, farms can use biogas digesters to turn animal manure into
methane for power generation.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

Bioenergy Inside the Body: ATP, ADP, and AMP

In living organisms, bioenergy is crucial for maintaining cellular functions and overall
metabolism. The energy currency of the cell is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which stores and
provides energy for various biochemical processes. ATP consists of an adenine base, a ribose
sugar, and three phosphate groups. When the bond between the second and third phosphate
group is broken, energy is released, converting ATP into adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
Further removal of a phosphate group from ADP forms adenosine monophosphate (AMP).

The ATP-ADP cycle is essential for cellular activities such as muscle contraction, nerve
impulse transmission, and chemical synthesis. The process of synthesizing ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate (Pi) primarily occurs in the mitochondria through cellular respiration,
involving glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Example: During intense physical activity, ATP is rapidly consumed to fuel muscle
contractions. The body then regenerates ATP through the breakdown of glucose or fats to
continue supplying energy.

Potential and Kinetic Energy in Bioenergy

In biological systems, bioenergy can exist in two forms: potential energy and kinetic energy.

• Potential Energy is stored energy, such as the chemical energy in the bonds of ATP
molecules or the energy stored in a glucose molecule before it is metabolized.

Example: The potential energy stored in ATP is released when its phosphate bonds are
broken, providing energy to power cellular processes.

• Kinetic Energy refers to the energy of movement or activity. In biological terms, this can
include the movement of ions across a membrane or the contraction of muscle fibers.

Example: When ATP is broken down into ADP and Pi, the energy released is used to move
muscle fibers during muscle contraction, a form of kinetic energy.

Bioenergy from the Sun: Photosynthesis

The primary source of bioenergy for life on Earth is the Sun. Photosynthesis is the process by
which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert sunlight into chemical energy, storing it in the
form of glucose. This energy is then available for use by the plant itself and by organisms that
consume the plant.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)

Photosynthesis occurs in two main stages:

1. Light-dependent reactions: Solar energy is absorbed by chlorophyll, a green pigment in

the chloroplasts, and used to split water molecules into oxygen, protons, and electrons.
The energy from sunlight also converts ADP into ATP, and NADP+ into NADPH,
which are used in the next stage.
2. Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions): The ATP and NADPH generated in the
light-dependent reactions are used to fix carbon dioxide into glucose through a series of
enzyme-driven steps.

Example: In a tree, sunlight is captured by chlorophyll in the leaves, converting it into chemical
energy stored in the bonds of glucose molecules. These glucose molecules serve as fuel for the
tree's growth and development.

Subject:Biology for Engineers Code:23BG208 By:Pallavi Bohra (Lecturer)