Air Pollutants (part I)

Air Pollutants (part II)

 Air Pollution Control
Criteria pollutants
National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) has identified six criteria pollutants. The
pollutants and their permissible limits in the environment are listed in the following table

Table 1 Criteria pollutants and their permissible limits

Pollutants Permissible limit

Carbon monoxide 9 𝑝𝑝𝑚 for 8 hours

Nitrogen oxides 0.05 𝑝𝑝𝑚 annually

Sulphur –di-oxide 0.03 𝑝𝑝𝑚 annually

𝑃𝑀 150 𝜇𝑔⁄𝑚 for 24 hours

𝑃𝑀 . 35 𝜇𝑔⁄𝑚 for 24 hours

Ozone 0.12 𝑝𝑝𝑚 for 1 hour

Lead 0.15 𝜇𝑔⁄𝑚 for 3 months

Factory exhaust and automobile exhaust are the main sources of these pollutants. Thus these
exhausts need to be treated before releasing to the atmosphere.

Treatment of factory exhaust

Cyclone separator
The exhaust is first sent to a cyclone separator, where it is subjected to a centrifugal field.
Cyclone separator is a centrifugal separator where the particles are swung as a result of their
mass by the centrifugal force. Large particles are accelerated towards the wall of separator and
strike on it. Ultimately the particles slide down to the bottom and deposited at the dust
collector, attached at the bottom. Clean gas is taken out from the top. Large particles, having
diameter ≥ 10 𝜇𝑚 can be separated successfully by using this technique. Dirty air enters into
the cyclone separator at an average speed of 16 𝑚/𝑠. The separation process is shown in the
Figure 1.

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Figure 1 Schematic diagram of separation process.
Filter bag unit
The dirty exhaust is then sent to a filter bag unit, consisting of several filter bags, suspended
from the top. The dirty gas is forced to pass through these bags from the bottom and
comparatively clean gas is taken out from the top. During passing through the bags particles,
having diameter, ≥ 5 𝜇𝑚, are separated and collected at the dust collector attached at the
bottom.

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of filter bag unit.

Bag diameter range 0.1 to 0.35 m
Bag height 2 to 6 m depending on type of products and production rate.
Bag life 1 to 5 years depending on the usage.
Bags are usually made of either cotton/wool or glass fibre. Cotton-made bags can sustain
temperature up to 90ºC but glass fibre-made bags can withstand temperature up to 260ºC.

Prof. ABM Page 2 of 6 Environmental Science

Liquid scrubbers
The exhaust is then sent to two successive liquid scrubbers, namely, alkaline scrubber and acid
scrubber. While passing through the alkaline scrubber acidic oxides, e.g., carbon-di-oxide,
sulphur-di-oxide, nitrogen-di-oxide etc. are absorbed and alkaline oxides, e.g., alumina, silica
etc. are absorbed in the acid scrubber. The schematic diagram of scrubber unit is shown in the
Fig.3.

Figure 3 Schematic diagram of liquid scrubber unit.

Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
An Electrostatic Precipitator or ESP consists of several plates and wires, arranged alternately.
An external source of e.m.f. (30 − 75 𝑘𝑉) is connected across the two ends such that plates are
positively charged and wires are negatively charged. The dirty air, coming from clod chamber,
is allowed to pass through in between plates and wires as shown in the Fig.4. As the dirty air
passes in between plates and wires, fine particles collect electrons from wires and get negatively
charged. These negatively charged particles are attracted towards the positively charged plates
and deposited there. Clean air is taken out from the other end and sent to the next unit. Fine
particles, having diameter as low as 1𝜇𝑚 can be separated by using this technique.

Prof. ABM Page 3 of 6 Environmental Science

Figure 4 Schematic diagram of ESP.
. / ̇
Efficiency (𝜂) of ESP is given by 𝜂 = 1 − 𝑒

where, 𝜂 is the efficiency of ESP, 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the plate, 𝑣 is the velocity of
the gas stream and 𝑄̇ is the volumetric flow rate of the gas stream. 𝑣 is constant foe a given
potential difference and 𝑄̇ is also constant for a given exhaust system. The value of 𝐴 can be
changed and 𝜂 increases with increase in value of 𝐴. Thus efficiency of an ESP increases with
increase in plate area.

Absorption column
The gas stream, coming from thermal precipitator, is passed through an absorption column
from the bottom. The column is filled with alumina (𝐴𝑙 𝑂 ) and silica gel mixture, which absorbs
undesired hydrocarbons from the gas stream. Finally the gas is released to the atmosphere.

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Figure 5 Schematic diagram of absorption column.
Treatment of automobile exhaust
Automobile exhaust is a big source of air pollution and hence the exhaust should be treated
properly before releasing to the atmosphere.

The Fig.6 illustrates the in-situ treatment process of automobile exhaust.

Figure 6 Schematic diagram of automobile exhaust treatment.

Prof. ABM Page 5 of 6 Environmental Science

A = Unleaded petrol tank, B = Combustion chamber, C = Oxygen sensor, D = Catalytic
chamber, E = Charcoal chamber, F = Silencer.

In automobiles unleaded petrol is recommended in order to avoid lead pollution. The unleaded
petrol is first sent to a combustion chamber, B, where air fuel ratio is maintained through an
oxygen sensor, C, which is attached to an oxygen cylinder.

After combustion, the exhaust is sent to a catalytic chamber, D, consisting of two compartments.
In the 1st compartment oxidising atmosphere is maintained by supplying profuse amount of air
from outside. Finely divided 𝑃𝑡/𝑃𝑑 mixture is used as catalyst. A small amount of 𝐶𝑒 is also
required to promote the oxidation process. Under this condition, hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide are oxidised to form harmless carbon dioxide and water vapour.

𝐻𝐶 + 𝐶𝑂  𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂

In the 2nd compartment reducing atmosphere is created by injecting ammonia from outside.
Rhodium (𝑅ℎ) is used as catalyst. Under this condition, nitrogen oxides are reduced to harmless
nitrogen and water vapour.

𝑁𝑂 + [𝐻]  𝑁 + 𝐻 𝑂

Oxygen sensor palys a vital role to maintain oxygen content in the air/fuel mixture. The sensor
may be affected due to the following reasons
(i) Silicon contamination. 𝑆𝑖 burns in the combustion chamber to form 𝑆𝑖𝑂 glaze, which affects
the efficiency of oxygen sensor.
(ii) Lead contamination.
(iii) Carbon contamination.

Prof. ABM Page 6 of 6 Environmental Science

 Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Gases usually absorb radiations within the range 𝟒 − 𝟑𝟎 𝝁𝒎. Gas molecules absorb radiations
and the chemical bond in the molecule are vibrating continuously.
Major greenhouse gases (GHG)
1. Carbon di oxide (𝐶𝑂 ).
2. Methane (𝐶𝐻 ).
3. Nitrous oxide (𝑁 𝑂).
4.Chlorofluorocarbon (𝐶𝐹𝐶 ) and Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC).
Minor greenhouse gases (GHG)
Ozone, sulphur di oxide, water vapour etc.

Characteristic features of major GHGs

GHG Average Atmospheric life GWP calculated Contribution in

concentration in time (years) over 100 years global warming
atmosphere

𝐶𝑂 390 ppm 100 to 250 1 50%

𝐶𝐻 1.8 ppm 11 25 19%

𝑁𝑂 0.4 ppm 150 300 4%

CFC and HFC 5 × 10 ppm 200 to 400 5000 to 15000 17%

Global warming potential (GWP)

For a given GHG, it refers to the amount of heat trapped by 1 𝑘𝑔 of that GHG with respect to that by 1 𝑘𝑔 of
carbon di oxide over a certain period of time. Time period may be 20, 100 or 500 years. Thus GWP is a ratio
and has no unit. As carbon di oxide is chosen as reference compound, (𝐺𝑊𝑃) = 1.

Factors influencing GWP

(a) Capacity of absorption of infrared radiations. Higher the capacity, higher the GWP is.
(b) The wavelength window of absorbed infrared radiations. Broader the wavelength window, higher the GWP
is.
(c) The atmospheric lifetime of the greenhouse gas. Higher the stability or lifetime, higher the GWP is.

Beneficial effect of GHG

Green House Gases form a thermal blanket over the earth surface so as to maintain the average surface
temperature of the earth to 15℃ or 288𝐾. In absence of this blanket, the earth surface would have been too
cold to have any existence of life.

Prof. ABM 1 Environmental Science

Adverse effects of GHG
(a) The concentration of carbon-di-oxide in the Earth’s atmosphere increases continuously, thereby increasing
average surface temperature of the Earth. As a result of this, the surface temperature of the Earth increases.
The phenomenon is known as global warming, which is responsible for climate change.
(b) (i) One important parameter for food-grain production is temperature. Due to global warming atmospheric
temperature rises. Food-grain production is affected with increase in temperature even by 1℃.
(ii) Due to global warming surface temperature of water increases. So dissolved oxygen (DO) content
decreases, threatening the aquatic ecosystem.
(iii) Due to global warming surface temperature of ocean water increases significantly. So temperature
gradient between surface and bottom of ocean changes and hence transfer of nutrients from the bottom layer
of ocean to the surface is restricted.
(c) Due to increase in GHG concentration in Earth atmosphere, global warming occurs, causing fast melting
of ice caps. This results continuous increase in water level in coastal area. It is apprehended that ocean water
level will increase more than 2 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 by the end of 2100. Then many coastal areas and islands will be
submerged.
(d) The theoretically calculated surface temperature of the planet Venus is −41℃ but actual surface
temperature of Venus is +427℃. So the net greenhouse effect is 427 − (−41) = +468°. In Earth atmosphere
also 𝐶𝑂 concentration increases steadily. If it continues, the Earth will also face the same status of Venus.

Steps to control global warming

(a) Consumption of fossil fuel, e.g., coal, petroleum, should be reduced.
(b) Non-conventional energy resources should be commercialized. Use of biofuel is recommended.
(c) Culture of plantation of trees should be spread globally to increase the 𝐶𝑂 consumption.
(d) Emission of GHG should be restricted.
(e) Use of LED lights and solar cells to reduce the consumption of electrical energy.
(f) Proper use of water resources to reduce the carbon emission in the atmosphere.
(g) All nations should abide by different international protocols regarding global warming.

Prof. ABM 2 Environmental Science

Kyoto protocol
The 1st major international step to prevent global warming was taken at Rio de Jenerio, Brazil in 1992, where
192 nations adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It was
recognized that reduction in 𝐶𝑂 and other GHG emissions is necessary to arrest global warming and hence
to prevent catastrophic climate change. The major achievement of the UNFCCC process was the Kyoto
Protocol, adopted on December 11, 1997. Under this protocol, 187 nations agreed to reduce their 𝐶𝑂 emission
to 5.2% of their 1992 levels at the end of 2012.
The Kyoto protocol came into effect on and from 16th February, 2005
 United States withdrew from UNFCCC in 2001.
 China and India are not required to comply because they are developing nations.

Q. Estimate equivalent temperature and surface temperature of the Mars by using the following data
𝑆 = 589 𝑊/𝑚 , 𝛼 = 0.15, , 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10 𝑊/𝑚 (𝐾) , 𝜆 = 13.173 𝜇𝑚

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 Ozone layer in stratosphere
Harmful effects of UV radiation
(a) An overexposure to UV-B radiation is responsible for sunburn and some skin cancer.
(b) Prolonged exposure to UV radiation may affect eyes and immune system of human being.
The skin is the worst affected due to exposure to UV radiation.
(c) Exposure to UV-C radiation may cause indirect DNA damage and carcinogenic diseases.

Beneficial effects of ozone layer

Ozone in stratosphere region has the following beneficial effects on all living beings
(a) Ozone layer acts as a protective shield for living organisms on earth from various injurious
effects of U.V. rays (200 − 320 𝑛𝑚), which is proven to be responsible for sunburn and skin
cancer.
(b) In stratosphere, ozone layer supplies necessary heat through absorption of U.V. rays to
develop a positive lapse rate in the stratosphere due to which stratospheric region is quite stable
and pollutants, in enters into the stratosphere, is entrapped locally instead of diffusion.
Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
Pollutants, available in the troposphere, frequently move into stratosphere and destroy the
ozone layer through different photochemical reactions. These pollutants are called ozone
depleting substance/chemical or ODS/ODC. There are several types of ODS are available but
out of them halogenated compounds are the most powerful ODS. Some of them are
Chlorofluorocarbons or Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (CFC or HCFC), Bromofluorocarbons or
Halons, Carbon tetra chloride (𝐶𝐶𝑙 ), Carbon tetra fluoride (𝐶𝐹 ), Methyl chloroform, Methyl
bromide etc. Halons are even are more powerful ODS than CFCs.

Chlorofluorocarbons or CFC
Organic compounds containing Carbon, Fluorine and Chlorine are called CFC. These are the
worst enemies of ozone in stratosphere. One example is 𝐶𝐹𝐶𝑙 .

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons or HCFC
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons or HCFCs contain chlorine but, unlike CFCs, they also contain
hydrogen (the 𝐻) which causes them to break down in the lower atmosphere (troposphere).

CFC numbering
The molecular formula of CFC or HCFC can be identified from the CFC number. Conversely,
CFC-number can be identified from its chemical formula. Some examples are given below

(i) Molecular formula of 𝐶𝐹𝐶 − 115

Solution 𝐶𝐹𝐶 number is 115. Add 90 to 115. The result is 115 + 90 = 205

The 1st figure, i.e.,2 indicates number of 𝐶 −atoms, the 2nd figure, i.e., 0 indicates number of
𝐻 −atoms and the 3rd figure, i.e., 5 indicates number of 𝐹 −atoms.
Prof. ABM 1 Environmental Science
No. of 2 0 5 No. of
C-atoms F-atoms

No. of
H-atoms

The remaining atoms, attached to 𝐶 −atoms to fulfil the valency of 𝐶 −atoms, are 𝐶𝑙 −atoms. In
this example, only one 𝐶𝑙 − 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 is needed to satisfy the valencies of two 𝐶 − 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠. Thus, the
molecular formula of 𝐶𝐹𝐶 − 115 is 𝐶 𝐹 𝐶𝑙.

(ii) Molecular formula of 𝐶𝐹𝐶 − 12

Solution 𝐶𝐹𝐶 number is 12. Add 90 to 12. The result is 12 + 90 = 102

The 1st figure, i.e.,1 indicates number of 𝐶 −atoms, the 2nd figure, i.e., 0 indicates number of
𝐻 −atoms and the 3rd figure, i.e., 2 indicates number of 𝐹 −atoms.

No. of 1 0 2 No. of
C-atoms F-atoms

No. of
H-atoms

So, 2 𝐶𝑙 −atoms are needed to satisfy the valency of one 𝐶 − 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚. Thus, the molecular
formula of 𝐶𝐹𝐶 − 12 is 𝐶𝐹 𝐶𝑙

(iii) 𝐶𝐹𝐶 number of 𝐶𝐻𝐹 𝐶𝑙.

Solution 𝐶 − atoms = 1, 𝐻 − atoms = 1 and 𝐹 − atoms = 2.

No. of 1 1 2 No. of
C-atoms F-atoms

No. of
H-atoms

So, 𝐶𝐹𝐶 number is (112 − 90) = 22. The compound is 𝐶𝐹𝐶 − 22.

(iv) 𝐶𝐹𝐶 number of 𝐶 𝐻 𝐹 𝐶𝑙.

Solution 𝐶 − atoms = 2, 𝐻 − atoms = 2 and 𝐹 − atoms = 3.

No. of 2 2 3 No. of
C-atoms F-atoms

No. of
H-atoms

So, 𝐶𝐹𝐶 number is (223 − 90) = 133. The compound is 𝐶𝐹𝐶 − 133.

Prof. ABM 2 Environmental Science

Applications of ODS
(a) CFCs and HFCs are widely used as propellants.
(b) CFCs and HFCs are also used as refrigerants in air conditioners, refrigerators, chillers etc.
(c) Halons have unique characteristic to arrest flame propagation. So they are widely used to
extinguish fires.
(d) Carbon tetra chloride, methyl chloroform, CFCs and HFCs are widely used as cleaning
agents for cleaning printed circuit boards, and also for degreasing different metal parts.

Ozone layer thickness

The scientist G.M.B. Dobson successfully established a method to measure ozone layer
thickness in the atmosphere. The unit of ozone layer thickness is expressed in Dobson Unit or
DU after his name. A DU measures the total amount of ozone in an overhead column of the
atmosphere. If the total amount of ozone in the overhead column of the atmosphere of an area
were compressed into one layer at 0 degrees Celsius and with a pressure of one atmosphere,
the height of the column indicates the thickness of the ozone layer in that area. Every 0.01
millimetre thickness of the layer is equal to one Dobson Unit. The average amount of ozone in
the stratosphere across the globe is about 300 DU (or a thickness of only 3 mm at 0℃ and 1
atmospheric pressure). Highest levels of ozone are usually found in the mid to high latitudes,
in Canada and Siberia (360DU).

Chemical reactions destroying ozone layer

In presence of CFC the following chain reaction is believed to take place.

𝐶𝐹𝐶𝑙  𝐶𝐹𝐶𝑙 ∗ + 𝐶𝑙 ∗
𝐶𝑙 ∗ + 𝑂  𝐶𝑙𝑂∗ + 𝑂
𝐶𝑙𝑂 ∗ + 𝑂  𝐶𝑙 ∗ + 2𝑂

Chain reaction continues.

However, 𝑁𝑂 , present in the atmosphere, deactivates 𝐶𝑙𝑂 ∗ by forming chlorine nitrate and
hence helps reduce ozone depletion. The reaction is shown below

𝐶𝑙𝑂 ∗ + 𝑁𝑂  𝐶𝑙𝑂𝑁𝑂 [Chlorine nitrate]

As 𝑁𝑂 helps to arrest ozone layer depletion, it is often called a friend of stratosphere.

In presence of 𝑁𝑂 the following reaction may occur.
𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂  𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂
2𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂  𝑁 𝑂 + 𝑂
𝑁 𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂  2𝐻𝑁𝑂

𝐻𝑁𝑂 is precipitated as in the form of acid rain on the Earth’s surface.

Prof. ABM 3 Environmental Science

Ozone depleting potential (ODP)
ODP is a measure of destructive effects of an ODS with respect to a reference substance. It
refers to the thickness of ozone layer (in DU) destroyed by 1 𝑔𝑚 of a given ODS with respect to
that by 1 𝑔𝑚 of CFC-11.

𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 (𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑈) 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 1 𝑔𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝐷𝑆

𝑂𝐷𝑃 =
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 (𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑈)𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 1 𝑔𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐹𝐶 − 11

ODP of CFC-11 is 1 and ODP of other chlorinated substances is less than 1 (< 1). However,
Bromine is far more effective than chlorine to destroy the ozone layer. Bromofluorocarbons are
known as Halons, having ODP greater than 1 (> 1).

HFC has no halogen atom in its molecular formula and hence it is not considered as ODS. So,
its ODP value is zero.

Montreal Protocol
An international agreement was made in 1987 at a conference in Montreal and signed by 34
countries. According to this agreement all countries agreed to ban CFC so that release of CFC
in atmosphere would be reduced to 50% by the end of 20th century. Even after enforcement of
Montreal Protocol in different countries, it was observed that ozone hole continued to widen at
a faster rate. In June 1990 at London Conference the developed countries agreed to ban CFC
totally by 2000 A.D. The London amendment of the Montreal Protocol was ratified in May, 1992
and came into effect on 10th August 1992.

Prof. ABM 4 Environmental Science

 Biodiversity
Definition Each and every ecosystem consists of varieties of plant and animal species.
Environmental condition of the Earth has been changing continuously since the formation of the Earth, as a
result of which, many species became extinct and some other species have appeared. This natural diversion
of species is known as biodiversity.

Classification
(a) Species diversity There is a variety of living species or organisms exist in marine, terrestrial
andaquatic sources. This is called species diversity.
(b) Genetic diversity Variability of genes is available in a single species. This is called genetic diversity.
(c) Ecological diversity There is a variety of ecosystems on the planet Earth. This is called
ecologicaldiversity. Examples: deserts, forests, ponds, lakes etc.
Endemic species An 'Endemic Species' is one that is only found in a particular region and
nowhere else in the world. Since these species are not widespread and may be confined to only one or two
protected areas, they are of great conservation concern. Some examples of endemic species of India are
given below

1. Kashmir Stag. 2. Nilgiri flycatcher.

Biodiversity hotspots Biodiversity hotspots are largely intact areas, supporting natural
ecosystems, where native species and communities associated with these ecosystems are well represented.
They are also areas with a high diversity of locally endemic species, which are species that are not found or
are rarely found outside the hotspot. In India Eastern Himalaya is an example of biodiversity hotspot.
Eastern Himalaya is situated between Central Nepal in the west to Myanmar in the east,
occupying southeast Tibet in China, Sikkim, North Bengal, Bhutan and North-East India. The area has
been declareda biodiversity hotspot by Conservation International.
Causes of loss of biodiversity
(a) Rainforests are the richest biodiversity. Indiscriminate destruction of these rainforests is the prime
reason of loss of biodiversity. Conservation policy of rich countries of the northern hemisphere.
(b) Transfer of environmentally unfriendly technological knowhow to poor countries of southern
hemisphere.
(c) 90% of world’s biological resources is confined in the southern hemisphere but all these resourcesare
being transferred to rich countries of the northern hemisphere.
(d) Excessive harvesting of plant and animal resources.
(e) Indiscriminate use of pesticides and germicides in agricultural land.
(f) Different wetlands are either filled up or used as sewerage.

Conservation of biodiversity
(a) Regular survey and assess the biological resources of each country of the world.
(b) Green technology must be developed and adopted to create sustainable environment.
(c) Quality of biodiversity should be improved by discovering new species and innovating methods for
utilization of new species.
(d) Conservation of natural resources for sustainable use through alternative planning.

Prof. ABM 1 Environmental Science

 Ecology and Ecosystem
Ecology
It is the study of influence of environmental factors on different aspects of life, e.g., morphology,
physiology, growth, distribution, behaviour and survival of living organisms. It is concerned
with relationship between living organisms and their physical environment.

Ecosystem

Sir Arthus Tansley, the British Botanist, first coined the term “Ecosystem” in 1935 and
defined it as the study of interaction between biotic and abiotic components of of a given
ecosystem through exchange of matter and energy. An ecosystem includes all living beings
(plants and animals) along with their environmental factors in a given area under
observation.

Characteristics of ecosystem
(a) An ecosystem contains two components: biotic and abiotic.
(b) All the nutrient cycles are completed through interactions between biotic and abiotic
components.
(c) An ecosystem has no boundary. It is flexible.
(d) Adaptation to the new environment is a must for each and every species. Otherwise, the
species will be destroyed.
(e) An ecosystem always passes from less complex state to more complex state. The phenomenon
is called succession.

Classification of ecosystem
The planet Earth has several type of ecosystems. These ecosystems can be broadly classified
into following categories.
(a) Natural ecosystem The ecosystem, which is created and maintained by nature
itself, is called natural ecosystem. Examples are forests, ponds, lakes etc.

(b) Artificial ecosystem The ecosystem, which is built up and maintained by human
beings, is called artificial ecosystem. Examples are, parks, zoological garden, aquarium etc.

(c) Incomplete ecosystem The ecosystem where all the components of environment are
not present is called incomplete ecosystem. Examples are interior of caves, bottom of ocean etc.

(d) Biome The major ecological community, occupying a very large area, is called biome. It
refers to a widespread ecological area where more or less same environmental conditions and
similar biotic components exist. Examples are rainforest, ocean, desert etc.

Prof ABM 1 Environmental Science

Components of ecosystem
(a) Abiotic components are called environmental factors.
(b) Biotic components, which deals with living organisms.

Abiotic factors
The different environmental conditions, which have significant influence on existence of biotic
components, are called abiotic factors. Abiotic actors are divided into different categories as
given below
(i) Physical factors Examples are: sunlight, wind, water, flood, temperature,
pressure, humidity, rainfall etc.
(ii) Inorganic factors Examples are: minerals, oils, fuels, gases etc.
(iii) Organic factors Examples are: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids etc.

Biotic components
Biotic components are broadly divided into two categories
(i) Autotrophs Green plants are producing their own food through
photosynthesis. These are called autotrophs.

(ii) Heterotrophs Besides green plants other living organisms depend on green plants
for their survival. These are called heterotrophs. These heterotrophs are again divided into two
categories: (a) Phagotrophs and (b) Saprotrophs as discussed below.

(a) Phagotrophs The living organisms, collecting their food directly from the green
plants, are called phagotrophs. These living organisms are again divided into three categories:
1. Herbivores or primary consumers There are some animals, which consume
green plants only for their survival. These animals are called herbivores. Examples are:
cow, goat deer etc.
2. Carnivores or secondary consumers There are some animals, which consume
herbivores and other animals for their survival. These are called carnivores. Examples are
tiger, lion etc.
3. Omnivores or tertiary consumers There are some living organisms, which
consume both green plants and other animals for their survival. These are called omnivores.
Examples are human being etc.
(b) Saprotrophs The organisms, which survive only on dead animals and plants, are
called saprotrophs. Examples: fungi, protozoa, bacteria etc.

Prof ABM 2 Environmental Science

GPP
In a given ecosystem the total amount of solar energy converted into chemical energy by green
plants through photosynthesis is called gross primary production or GPP. Factors influencing
GPP are (a) the light intensity, (b) the quantum efficiency of light, (c) the leaf area index
(LAI), (d) the leaf arrangement on plants, (f) the type of plant.

LAI: It is the area of leaf surface exposed to sunlight over a specified area of ground surface.

NPP
A given ecosystem green plants are responsible for GPP, which is essential for survival of life
on earth. A fraction of GPP is utilised by green plants for their survival and the other fraction,
which is available to transfer to other living organisms, is called net primary production or
NPP.

Biomagnification
In any given ecosystem some chemicals are continuously accumulated in living organisms.
Biomagnification (or bioaccumulation) refers to the ability of living organisms to
accumulate certain chemicals to a concentration higher than that present in the environment.
Generally, organisms accumulate different chemical substances for their nutrition. In
environmental science, however, the major focus of biomagnification is the accumulation of
chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as DDT and PCBs, which are insoluble in water but highly
soluble in fats. Because almost all fats within ecosystems occur in the living bodies of
organisms, these chlorinated hydrocarbons tend to selectively accumulate in organisms. This
can lead to ecological imbalance. Accumulation of a substance only through contact with water
is known as bioconcentration.

Food chain
Autotrophs are called producers, which convert solar energy to chemical energy. Consumers
collect energy through consumption of autotrophs. So all the living organisms and green plants
are interconnected through different chains, known as food chains. Food chains may be of
different types
(a) Predator food chain The food chain, which starts with producer ends to the highest
trophic level, is called predator food chain. One example is

Grass  Grasshopper  toad  snake  peacock 

(b) Parasitic food chain The food chain, which ends with parasitic animals, is called
parasitic food chain. One example is

Man  Worm  Protozoa

(c) Saprophitic food chain The food chain, which starts with dead plant/animal, is called
saprophytic food chain. One example is

Dead plant/animal  Fungi  Bacteria

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Desert and Grazing food chains
An example of desert food chain is shown below
Producers Primary consumers  Secondary consumers  Larger predators
Producers Cactus, Annual flowers, Creosote bushes.

Primary consumers Insets, Small Lizards, Rodents, Kangaroo, Rats.

Secondary consumers Tarantulas, Scorpions, Large Lizards, Snakes.

Larger predators Hawk, Kit Fox.

A grazing food chain cycle of a given ecosystem is shown in the Fig.1.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of a grazing food chain cycle.

Characteristics of a food chain

(a) A given food chain is always composed of producers and consumers. Furthermore, according
to food habits, producers can be divided into different layers, known as trophic levels.
(b) As we move from lower trophic level to higher trophic level, size of organism increases but
the number decreases. If all the trophic levels are sequentially placed one after another, a
pyramid is formed. This pyramid is called ecological pyramid, discussed in the next section.
(c) Energy is always flowing from producer to the higher trophic level and the flow of energy is
unidirectional. However, flow of nutrients is cyclic in nature. The Fig.2, illustrates the energy
transfer from producers to higher trophic levels.

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Figure 2 Energy flow diagram of a given ecosystem. [Arrows in the above figure were absent
in the previous print.

(d) In any given ecosystem there are several food chains and these are interconnected, forming
a web, known as food web, illustrated in the Fig.3.

Figure 3 Schematic network of interconnected multiple food chains.

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Ecological pyramid
If the trophic levels are placed one after another, a pyramid is formed, known as ecological
pyramid. Three types of ecological pyramids are available in nature
It represents the relationship in terms of numbers among different trophic levels. There is one
type of food chain, where, the number of species decreases as we move from lower trophic level
to higher one. If the trophic levels are placed sequentially from the lowest one to the highest
one, an upright pyramid is formed, illustrated in the Fig.4.

Figure 4 Upright and vertical pyramid of numbers.

Environmental strain and stress

Plastic environmental strain
Adaptations, which give rise plastic resistance to organism and thereby prevent injury by
environmental stress are termed resistance adaptations, also known as plastic environmental
strain.

Elastic environmental strain

There are some adaptations, which not only prevent injury by external stress but also permit
growth of organism. These are called capacity adaptations, also known as elastic environmental
strain.

Environmental stress
Any environmental factor, potentially unfavourable to living organisms, is called
environmental stress. Survival of an organism depends on several abiotic factors.

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Biogeochemical cycle
Principal nutrients, like carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus, are constantly absorbed by
living organisms from their environment and at the same time the nutrients are returned to
the atmosphere through various biochemical reactions. This cyclic flow of nutrients from abiotic
components to biotic components and back to abiotic components is called biogeochemical cycle.
The principal nutrient cycles are
(a) Nitrogen cycle. It is shown on the Fig.5.
(b) Carbon-di-oxide cycle. It is well illustrated in the Fig.6.
(c) Sulphur cycle. It is shown in the Fig.7.
(d) Phosphorus cycle. It is illustrated in the Fig.8.

Figure 5 Nitrogen cycle.

Rhizobium and Azobactor These bacteria are present at root nodules and called
nitrogen fixing bacteria. It converts atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. However, It cannot
execute the conversion process alone. It requires the host, i.e., roots of green plants for
conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. In another process thunder storm and
atmospheric lightning converts nitrogen to ammonium salts, which is ultimately absorbed by
green plants.

Nitrifying bacteria It is of two types

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(a) Ammonia Oxidizing Bacteria or AOB Examples are Nitrosomonus and Nitrosolobus.
These bacteria convert ammonium salts to nitrites.
(b) Nitrite Oxidizing Bacteria or NOB Examples are Nitrobactor and Nitrospira. These
bacteria convert nitrites to nitrates.

Denitrifying bacteria Examples are Pseudomonus and Claustridim. These bacteria

convert nitrates to nitrogen, which is ultimately released to the atmosphere.

Figure 6 Carbon-di-oxide cycle.

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 Figure 7 Sulphur cycle.

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 Figure 8 Phosphorus cycle.

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 Hardness and Alkalinity of Water
Definition
It is the property of water to prevent forming lather or foam in presence of detergent. Besides
𝐶𝑎 and 𝑀𝑔 ions, other ions like 𝐹𝑒 etc. also prevent forming lather but only 𝐶𝑎 and
𝑀𝑔 ions are present in significant amount in surface water and hence hardness of water
mainly arises due to the presence of 𝐶𝑎 and 𝑀𝑔 ions. Hardness of water is expressed as
𝑚𝑔⁄𝑙 or 𝑝𝑝𝑚.

Hardness of water may be broadly classified into following categories

(i) Temporary hardness.
(ii) Permanent hardness.
Total hardness = Temporary hardness + Permanent hardness

Temporary hardness
When water sample is boiled, calcium and magnesium bi-carbonates are precipitated as
carbonates and hence hardness due to 𝐶𝑎 − and 𝑀𝑔 −bi-carbonates is removed. This is called
temporary hardness. So this temporary hardness mainly arises due to the presence of
𝐶𝑎 (𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) and 𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) . These bi-carbonates remain soluble in cold water but are removed
as carbonates when boiled according to the following equation.

𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) ⎯ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ + 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂
𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) ⎯ 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂 ↓ + 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂

Permanent hardness
That fraction of hardness, which remains unaltered even after boiling, is known as permanent
hardness. Presence of soluble salt of 𝐶𝑎 and 𝑀𝑔 ions other than bicarbonates, is the main
source of permanent hardness.

Treatment of hard water

Lime-Soda process
The chemicals, used in this process, is a mixture of soda, i.e., 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 and slaked lime, i.e.,
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻) . The hard water and chemical mixture are heated to around 100℃ with continuous
stirring in a reaction chamber, where, the following reactions are believed to take place:
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂  𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂  𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +𝑁𝑎 𝑆𝑂
𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑎 (𝑂𝐻 )  𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻 ) ↓ +𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐶𝑎 (𝑂𝐻 )  𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻 ) ↓ +𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +𝑁𝑎 𝑆𝑂
As the process is carried out at high temperature, it is often called hot lime-soda process.
Hardness of soft water usually lies within 30 𝑝𝑝𝑚.

Prof. ABM 1 Environmental Science

Zeolite process
In this process zeolite is used to remove the hardness of water. Its prime constituent is 𝑁𝑎 ions
and hence it is best represented as 𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒. Its chemical formula is given below
𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 ≡ 𝑍𝑒 = 𝑁𝑎 𝑂. 𝐴𝑙 𝑂 . 2𝑆𝑖𝑂 . 6𝐻 𝑂
When hard water is passed over this 𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒 bed, 𝐶𝑎 and 𝑀𝑔 ions react with 𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒,
precipitating 𝐶𝑎𝑍𝑒 and 𝑀𝑔𝑍𝑒. The following reactions are believed to take place.
𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒 + 𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂 )  𝐶𝑎𝑍𝑒 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂
𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒 + 𝑀𝑔 (𝐻𝐶𝑂 )  𝑀𝑔𝑍𝑒 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂
𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒 + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙  𝐶𝑎𝑍𝑒 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒 + 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂  𝐶𝑎𝑍𝑒 + 𝑁𝑎 𝑆𝑂
𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒 + 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙  𝑀𝑔𝑍𝑒 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒 + 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂  𝑀𝑔𝑍𝑒 + 𝑁𝑎 𝑆𝑂
𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒 + 𝐹𝑒(𝐻𝐶𝑂 )  𝐹𝑒𝑍𝑒 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂
𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒 + 𝑀𝑛(𝐻𝐶𝑂 )  𝑀𝑛𝑍𝑒 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂
The process is illustrated in the Fig.1.

Figure 1. Zeolote treatment of hard water.

The zeolite bed is regenerated by treating it with concentrated 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 or brine solution. 𝐶𝑎𝑍𝑒 and
𝑀𝑔𝑍𝑒 react with 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 to regenerate 𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑒. Hardness of softened water lies < 10 𝑝𝑝𝑚.

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Deionisation process
In this process the raw hard water is passed through two successive filter beds. One is made of
the resin, represented as 𝑅𝑆𝑂 𝐻 ⁄𝑅𝐶𝑂𝑂 𝐻 /𝑅𝑂 𝐻 etc., which, when comes in contact with
raw water, absorbs 𝐶𝑎 , 𝑀𝑔 or other cations with the release of 𝐻 ions.

𝑛𝑅𝑆𝑂 𝐻 + 𝑀  (𝑅𝑆𝑂 ) 𝑀 + 𝑛𝐻

This 𝑅𝑆𝑂 𝐻 is known as cation exchange resin and has the following chemical structure:

CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

- + - +
SO 3 H SO3 H

The effluent of cation exchange bed is sent to an anion exchange bed chamber, where all the
anions are absorbed within the bed with the release of 𝑂𝐻 ions. The anion exchange resin is
represented as [𝑅𝑁(𝐶𝐻 ) ] 𝑂𝐻 . The chemical structure of the anion exchange resin is:

CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

+ - + -
CH2N(CH3)3 OH CH2N(CH3)3 OH

The following reaction is believed to take place during exchange of ions:

𝑛[𝑅𝑁 (𝐶𝐻 ) ] 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐴  [𝑅𝑁(𝐶𝐻 ) ] 𝐴 + 𝑛𝑂𝐻

Finally 𝐻 and 𝑂𝐻 ions recombine to form pure water, which is known as demineralised water
or deionised water.
𝐻 + 𝑂𝐻  𝐻 𝑂
The hardness of deionised water is very low, as low as 1 𝑝𝑝𝑚. The ion exchange bed are
exhausted after certain time and then the beds can be regenerated by treating cation exchange
bed acid solution and anion exchange bed with alkali solution.

(𝑅𝑆𝑂 ) 𝑀 + 𝑛𝐻  𝑛𝑅𝑆𝑂 𝐻 + 𝑀
[𝑅𝑁(𝐶𝐻 ) ] 𝐴 + 𝑛𝑂𝐻  𝑛[𝑅𝑁(𝐶𝐻 ) ] 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐴

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The process is widely used to soften any type of hard water. However, installation cost for
setting up ion exchange plant is very high.

Alkalinity of water
Amount of acid required to neutralize a given sample water is known as alkalinity of water. It
is expressed in terms of 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡.
Alkalinity mainly arises due to the presence of 𝐻𝐶𝑂 , 𝐶𝑂 and 𝑂𝐻 . These radicals are
neutralized in presence of acid according to the following reactions:

𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻  𝐻 𝑂 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)
𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻  𝐻𝐶𝑂 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2)
𝐻𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻  𝐻 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (3)

As 𝐻𝐶𝑂 is alkaline in nature reactions (1) and (2) can be estimated by using phenolphthalein
indicator. However, the reaction (3) can be estimated by using methyl orange only. Actually
methyl orange indicator can be used to estimate all the above three reactions. Methyl orange is
written as 𝑀𝑂 in short and phenolphthalein is written as 𝑃. 𝐶𝑂 is neutralized in two steps
[reactions (2) and (3)]. So reaction (2) indicates half neutralization of 𝐶𝑂 . Thus we can write:

1
𝑃 = [𝑂𝐻 ] + [𝐶𝑂 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑂 = [𝑂𝐻 ] + [𝐶𝑂 ] + [𝐻𝐶𝑂 ] ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (4)
2

Where, 𝑃 = Concentration of acid required in 𝑚𝑙 to neutralize a given sample water by using

phenolphthalein as indicator.

𝑀𝑂 = Concentration of acid required in 𝑚𝑙 to neutralize a given sample water by using

methyl orange as indicator.

Several cases may arise depending on relations between 𝑃 and 𝑀𝑂.

Case-I: 𝑃 = 𝑀𝑂. It indicates that from equation (4) that [𝐶𝑂 ] = [𝐻𝐶𝑂 ] = 0. Sample
water contains only 𝑂𝐻 ions and [𝑂𝐻 ] = 𝑃 = 𝑀𝑂.

Case-II: 𝑃 = 0. It indicates that from equation (4) that [𝐶𝑂 ] = [𝑂𝐻 ] = 0. Sample water
contains only 𝐻𝐶𝑂 ions and [𝐻𝐶𝑂 ] = 𝑀𝑂.

Case-III: 𝑃 = 𝑀𝑂. It indicates that from equation (4) that [𝑂𝐻 ] = [𝐻𝐶𝑂 ] = 0. Sample
water contains only 𝐶𝑂 ions and [𝐶𝑂 ] = 2𝑃 = 𝑀𝑂.

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Case-IV: 𝑃 > 𝑀𝑂. It indicates that from equation (4) that [𝐻𝐶𝑂 ] = 0. Sample water
contains 𝑂𝐻 and 𝐶𝑂 ions. Thus we can write that
𝑃 = [𝑂𝐻 ] + [𝐶𝑂 ]
𝑀𝑂 = 𝑂𝐻 + [𝐶𝑂 ]

𝑃 − 𝑀𝑂 = 𝑂𝐻
Or, 𝑂𝐻 = 2𝑃 − 𝑀𝑂

Again, 𝑃 = [𝑂𝐻 ] + [𝐶𝑂 ]

𝑀𝑂 = [𝑂𝐻 ] + [𝐶𝑂 ]

𝑀𝑂 − 𝑃 = [𝐶𝑂 ]
[𝐶𝑂 ] = 2(𝑀𝑂 − 𝑃)

Case-V: 𝑃 > 𝑀𝑂. It indicates that from equation (4) that [𝑂𝐻 ] = 0. Sample water
contains both 𝐻𝐶𝑂 and 𝐶𝑂 ions.

𝑀𝑂 = [𝐶𝑂 ] + [𝐻𝐶𝑂 ]
𝑃 = [𝐶𝑂 ]

𝑀𝑂 − 𝑃 = [𝐻𝐶𝑂 ]
[𝐶𝑂 ] = 2𝑃

Alkalinity attacks the boiler plate. Thus boiler feed water should be free from alkalinity.
Alkalinity is usually expressed in terms of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡.

Boiler feed water requirement

(a) Hardness should be less than 0.20 𝑝𝑝𝑚.
(b) Alkalinity due to 𝑂𝐻 ion should be less than 0.40 𝑝𝑝𝑚.
(c) Alkalinity due to 𝐶𝑂 ion should be less than 1 𝑝𝑝𝑚.

Scale and sludge formation

The function of a boiler is to supply steam continuously. Water is continuously supplied to the
boiler, at which water is converted to steam at high temperature and pressure. During boiling,
impurities, present in water, gets deposited on the boiler plate continuously. Some precipitates
are very fine and remain within boiler in the form of colloids. This is called sludge.

The main constituents of scale are 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 , 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 , 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻) , 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑂 , and 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑂 .

Some precipitates get precipitated in the form of coarse particles, which remains adhered with
inner wall of the boiler plate as hard deposit. This is called scale.

The main constituents of sludge are 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙 , 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙 , 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂 , 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 etc.
Prof. ABM 5 Environmental Science
Disadvantages of scale and sludge formation
(a) Usually scales and sludge are poor conductor of heat and hence excess fuel is often required
to achieve the desired temperature. Thus fuel wastage is the immediate effect of scale and
sludge formation.
(b) Boiler efficiency decreases.
(c) Corrosion of boiler plate.
(d) Overheating of boiler plate. This is a serious problem since due to overheating high heat is
developed on the boiler plate, as a result of which, metals becomes weaker, leading to the
formation of cracks on the boiler plate.
(e) As thermal conductivity of boiler is adversely affected due to scale and sludge formation,
some portion of boiler remains over-heated whereas other portion remains under-heated.
As a result of this, boiler tube gets distorted, thereby decreasing the boiler efficiency and
threatening the danger of explosion.

Prevention
To avoid the scale and sludge formation, soft water, having following specifications, is
recommended for the use in the boiler.

Calculation of Lime-Soda requirement

𝐶𝑎 (𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) + 𝐿  2𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +𝐻 𝑂 [Only Lime is required] 𝐿

𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) + 2𝐿  2𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +𝑀𝑔 (𝑂𝐻 ) ↓ +2𝐻 𝑂 [Only Lime is required] 2𝐿

𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙 ⁄𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 + 𝐿  𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻) ↓ +𝐶𝑎

𝐶𝑎 + 𝑆  𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +2𝑁𝑎 [Both Lime and Soda are required] (𝐿 + 𝑆)

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙 ⁄𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 + 𝑆  𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +2𝑁𝑎 [Only Soda is required] 𝑆

𝐶𝑂 + 𝐿  𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +𝐻 𝑂 [Only Lime is required] 𝐿

2𝐻 + 𝐿  𝐶𝑎 + 2𝐻 𝑂
𝐶𝑎 + 𝑆  𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +2𝑁𝑎 [Both Lime and Soda are required] (𝐿 + 𝑆 )

2𝐻𝐶𝑂 + 𝐿  𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +𝑆 + 𝐻 𝑂 [Soda is produced] (𝐿 − 𝑆)

𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 + 𝐿  𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻) + 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂  𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻) ↓

𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 + 𝑆  𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +2𝑁𝑎 [Both Lime and Soda are required] (𝐿 + 𝑆 )

𝐴𝑙 (𝑆𝑂 ) + 3𝐿  2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻) ↓ +3𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂

3𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 + 3𝑆  3𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ↓ +3𝑁𝑎 𝑆𝑂 [Both Lime and Soda are required] (3𝐿 + 3𝑆)

Prof. ABM 6 Environmental Science

 Chemical formula Molecular weight

Lime [𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻) ] 74

Soda [𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 ] 106

𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 120

𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂 84

𝑀𝑔(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) 146

𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙 95

𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) 162

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 100

𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 136

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙 111

Solved problem
1. Analysis of a given sample water gave the following result:
𝐻 𝑆𝑂 = 200 𝑝𝑝𝑚, 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 = 30 𝑝𝑝𝑚, 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 = 300 𝑝𝑝𝑚, 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = 35 𝑝𝑝𝑚
Calculate the amount of lime and soda required to soften 150 × 10 𝑙 of water.

Solution

74
𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = {[𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ] + [𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 ]}𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 𝑒𝑞. (𝑚𝑔⁄𝑙 ) × 150 × 10 𝑙
100
74 100 100
= 200 × + 30 × × 150 𝑘𝑔.
100 98 120
= 25428 𝑘𝑔 (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥. ).

106
𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = {[𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ] + [𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 ] + [𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 ]}𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 𝑒𝑞. (𝑚𝑔⁄𝑙) × 150 × 10 𝑙
100
106 100 100 100
= 200 × + 30 × + 300 × × 150 𝑘𝑔.
100 98 120 136
= 71497.5 𝑘𝑔.

Prof. ABM 7 Environmental Science

 Metal Pollution
Cadmium (𝑪𝒅) pollution
Toxic effects of Cadmium
1. It causes high blood pressure.
2. It destroys RBC. So it is called hematoxin.
3. It damages kidneys. So it is called nephrotoxin.
4. Aquatic life becomes endangered in presence of 𝐶𝑑.
5. It has affinity to 𝑆 and hence reduces the activity of enzyme by reacting with – 𝑆𝐻 groups of
enzymes.
6. Bones become fragile in presence of 𝐶𝑑.
7. It is responsible for cancer.
8. Gastric and intestinal disorder is another adverse effect of 𝐶𝑑.
Biochemical effect
Cadmium, ingested by human being, is normally trapped in kidneys. However, 99% 𝐶𝑑 is
eliminated while only 1% is stored. If the 𝐶𝑑 content in the body is high, more than 1% 𝐶𝑑 is stored
in kidneys. This excess 𝐶𝑑 then replaces 𝑍𝑛 in 𝑍𝑛 containing enzymes, resulting metabolic
disorder. Like 𝐴𝑠, 𝐶𝑑 also has affinity to 𝑆 and hence attacks – 𝑆𝐻 groups of enzymes, reducing the
activity of enzymes. Cadmium is deadly poisonous, responsible for renal disorder, anemia,
hypertension and bone marrow disorder.
Preventive measures against cadmium pollution
1. Locate and seal the cadmium pollution sources.
2. Regular monitoring of cadmium pollution level.
3. Take necessary remedial actions. 𝐶𝑑-level should not exceed 10 cppb. 𝐶𝑑-toxicity can be
reduced by using 𝑍𝑛.

Lead (𝑷𝒃) pollution

Toxic effects of Lead
1. It causes anemia.
2. It causes kidney failure.
3. It is responsible for nervous disorder.
4. It is responsible for soil pollution.
5. It is one of the components of SPM.

Prof. ABM 1 Environmental Science

 Biochemical effect
Haem is the prosthetic group of hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochromes. Haem is an
asymmetric molecule, containing methyl group, sulphur and protein as shown in the following
figure. Condensation of glycine and succinyl-CoA, with decarboxylation, results 𝛿 −aminolevulinic
acid (ALA), which is ultimately converted to haem.

CH 3

CH 3 HC S CH2 protein

N
H3C CH3
N Fe N
 prote in
O OC CH 2 CH2 CH S CH 2
N
CH3

CH 2 CH 3

CH 2

COO  Haem C

𝑃𝑏 inhibits d-aminolevulinic acid to synthesize haem. It also inhibits proteins to carry 𝑂 and
glucose. All these effects are detected when 𝑃𝑏 level in the blood reaches about 0.3 𝑝𝑝𝑚. When the
𝑃𝑏 level in the blood is more than 0.6 𝑝𝑝𝑚, the following symptoms are detected (i)
anemia, (ii) renal disorder and (iii) brain damage.

Excess 𝑃𝑏 can be removed from human body by using chelating agents, like, EDTA, 2,3-dimercapto
propanol, d-penicillamine etc. 𝑃𝑏 readily forms stable chelates with them and finally removed
through urine. In this way, 𝑃𝑏 poisoning can be cured.

Preventive measures against lead pollution

1. Lead compounds should be replaced by other harmless compounds.
2. Use of unleaded petrol in automobiles is highly recommended.
3. The places where lead particles are generated should be cordoned.
4. Proper ventilation of exhaust gases, mixed with lead particles, should be arranged.
5. Gas masks should be used to stop inhalation of gases.
6. Factory exhaust should be treated properly before releasing to the atmosphere.

Prof. ABM 2 Environmental Science

 Arsenic (𝑨𝒔) pollution
Toxic effects of Arsenic
𝐴𝑠(𝐼𝐼𝐼) is the most toxic. It is generally found in insecticides, fungicides and herbicides.
1. It readily attacks enzyme and hence activity of enzyme is sufficiently reduced.
2. It attacks the liver. That is why it is called hepatoxin.
3. ATP generation is significantly inhibited in presence of arsenic.
4. 𝐴𝑠 coagulates the proteins very fast.
5. It is also responsible for skin cancer.
6. It changes blood composition and attacks central nervous system.
Biochemical effect
𝐴𝑠(𝐼𝐼𝐼) is the most toxic. It has a natural penchant for 𝑆 and hence it readily attacks – 𝑆𝐻 groups
of enzyme. So enzyme action in human is sufficiently inhibited in presence of 𝐴𝑠. The following
reaction is believed to occur
_
SH O _ _
+ _ _
Enzyme S
SH O
As O > Enzyme As O + 2 OH
S
Enzymes generate energy through biochemical process but 𝐴𝑠 in the form of arsenate strongly
inhibits the enzymatic action.

Another energy producing substance in human body is ATP (adenosine triphospahte).

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is converted to ATP through biochemical process. Arsenic (𝐴𝑠) and
phosphorus (𝑃) belong to the same group. Thus in arsenic contamination 𝐴𝑠 often replaces 𝑃 of
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, thereby inhibiting ATP generation. The following process is believed
to take place during ATP generation.

CH2OPO 3-2 CH2OPO 3-2

Phosphate Biochemical process
H C OH > H C OH > ATP

C=O C=O

H OPO 3-2

glyberaldehyde 3-phosphate 1,3-diphospho glycerate

However, in presence of 𝐴𝑠𝑂 , 1,3-diphosphoglycerate is not formed.

Prof. ABM 3 Environmental Science

 CH2OPO3-2 CH2OPO3-2

H C OH + AsO3-3 > H C OH

C=O C=O

H OAsO3-2
glyberaldehyde 3-phosphate 1-arseno-3-phospho glycerate

Preventive measures against arsenic pollution

1. Identify the sources of arsenic pollution and cordon the area.
2. In case of arsenic polluted ground water sources the inhabitants must be prevented from using
drinking water from that area. Deeper tube wells (70 metres to 100 metres) should be used for
drinking water.
3. Regular monitoring of water samples of ground water and drinking water is necessary to
control arsenic level.
4. Use of rain water for drinking purposes.
5. Reducing the use of arsenic enriched insecticides and pesticides.

Mercury (𝑯𝒈) pollution

Toxic effects of Mercury
1. Elemental 𝐻𝑔 is nontoxic but 𝐻𝑔 vapour is extremely toxic when inhaled.
2. Toxicity level 𝐻𝑔 is low but that of 𝐻𝑔 is high but the latter does not have easy access to
the biological membranes.
3. 𝑅𝐻𝑔 , organomercurials, is extremely toxic. It is easily transported to biological membranes. It
causes nervous breakdown, damages brain cells.
4. 𝑅𝐻𝑔 decomposes blood cells, attacks hemoglobin, causing anemia. Hence 𝐻𝑔 is also called
hematoxin.
5. 𝑅𝐻𝑔 damages kidney. Hence it is also called nephrotoxin.
6. It has affinity to 𝑆 and hence reduces the activity of enzyme by reacting with – 𝑆𝐻 groups
of enzymes.
Biochemical effect
1. Mercury (𝐻𝑔) is available in different forms in nature (a) elemental 𝐻𝑔 (both in liquid and
vapour states), (b) 𝐻𝑔 , (c) 𝐻𝑔 , (d) 𝑅 𝐻𝑔, (e) 𝐻𝑔𝑆, (f) 𝑅𝐻𝑔 , especially, 𝐶𝐻 𝐻𝑔 .

Prof. ABM 4 Environmental Science

2. Liquid 𝐻𝑔 is inert and non-toxic. If it somehow enters into human body, it does not cause any
harm.
3, 𝐻𝑔 vapour is highly toxic and dangerous to human being. It can penetrate into brain cells
through blood and causes severe damge to the central nervous system (CNS).

4. 𝐻𝑔 readily forms insoluble 𝐻𝑔 𝐶𝑙 and precipitated out from the system. As human stomach
contains sufficient concentration of 𝐶𝑙 ions, 𝐻𝑔 is automatically isolated from the system as
𝐻𝑔 𝐶𝑙 (𝑠). Thus 𝐻𝑔 is not so toxic to human being.
5. 𝐻𝑔 is highly toxic. It has a strong penchant to 𝑆 −atoms. So it attacks – 𝑆𝐻 groups of enzyme,
retarding the enzymatic action significantly. It also attacks 𝑆 −bearing amino acids of proteins,
forms bonds with haemoglobin, albumin etc. It is inable to move across biological membranes and
hence biological cells are not affected by 𝐻𝑔 .
6. Organomercurials, i.e., 𝑅𝐻𝑔 are highly toxic species. Most common and available
organomercurial is 𝐶𝐻 𝐻𝑔 . It can easily penetrated through biological membranes. It is
responsible for creating energy deficiency in brain cells, resulting collapse of central nervous
system. 𝐶𝐻 𝐻𝑔 accelerates segregation of chromosome and chromosome breakage in cell. It also
inhibits cell division. It is responsible for clotting in blood cell. It also attacks kidney, resulting
severe damage to kidney system. Only 0.5 𝑝𝑝𝑚 of 𝐶𝐻 𝐻𝑔 is enough to execute the above dreadful
activities.
7. 𝐶𝐻 𝐻𝑔 was responsible for minamata episode in Japan.
8. 𝑅 𝐻𝑔 has a very low toxicity. However, it can be converted to 𝑅𝐻𝑔 in acidic medium.
9. 𝐻𝑔𝑆 is insoluble and apparently non-toxic.
Preventive measures against mercury pollution
1. All mercury based pesticides must be banned.
2. Use of mercury compounds should be restricted to selected areas only.
3. Chlor-Alkali plants must stop using 𝐻𝑔-electrodes.

Prof. ABM 5 Environmental Science

Noise Pollution
Average noise level (𝑳𝒂𝒗 )
In a given area if more than one noise level is active for different time periods, the average
noise level can be calculated using the following equation
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
𝐼 10 + 10 + 10 + ⋯ ⋯ + 10
𝐿 = 10 log = 10 log
𝐼 𝑛

Where, 𝐿 , 𝐿 , 𝐿 etc. are the loudness values of different noise levels active in that area and 𝑛 represents
the total number of different noise levels.

Total noise level (𝑳𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 )

Similarly the total noise level can be calculated using the following equation

𝐼 ⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
𝐿 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 10 log 10 + 10 + 10 + ⋯ ⋯ + 10
𝐼

Where, 𝐿 , 𝐿 , 𝐿 etc. are the loudness values of different noise levels active in that area.

Classification of noise
Noise can be classified into three broad categories

(i) Transport noise, (ii) Occupational noise, (iii) Neighbourhood noise.

(i) Transport noise

It may be further divided into three categories

(i) Road traffic noise, (ii) Rail traffic noise, (iii) Air craft noise.

Road traffic noise

Noise, produced from automobiles and other vehicles, is called road traffic noise. So noise level
increases with increase in traffic density. 𝐿 (18 hour) Index is used to measure road traffic
noise intensity. In case of measurement of road traffic noise the total time period of
measurement is 18 hours (from 6 AM to 12 MN). That is why road traffic noise index is
expressed as 𝐿 (18 hour) Index.

Prof. ABM 1 MC-401

Permissible noise level in different areas is listed below

Area Day time Night time

Industrial 75 dB 65 dB

Commercial 65 dB 55 dB

Residential 55 dB 45 dB
100m around hospitals,
educational institutions, 45 dB 40 DB
courts etc.

Rail traffic noise

The frequency of rail traffic noise is lower than that of road traffic noise and hence apparently
it is not harmful to human being. However, buildings, located nearby railway tracks, are
affected by that noise level. Introduction of diesel and all-electric locomotives has greatly
reduced rail traffic noise.

Air craft noise

Unlike road traffic noise, air craft noise is not continuous. This type of noise arises only when
aeroplanes are landing or taking off. Permissible noise level range is 100 𝐿𝑒𝑝𝑛 to 120 𝐿𝑒𝑝𝑛 in
day time and 90 𝐿𝑒𝑝𝑛 to 100 𝐿𝑒𝑝𝑛 at night.

(ii) Occupational noise

It arises mainly due to (i) industrial machines and (ii) domestic machines.

Examples of industrial machines are: Milling machine, Lathe machine, News Paper Press,
Textile Loom etc.

Examples of domestic machines are: Vacuum Cleaners, Washing machine, Mixers &
Grinders etc.

(iii) Neighbourhood noise

Television-set, Radio-set, Loudspeakers, Fire Crackers etc. are some of the common sources,
which cause huge disturbances to general public.

Prof. ABM 2 MC-401

Control of noise pollution
Noise is always generated from a source and then it is communicated to the receiver end. So,
noise can be controlled at source, along communicating path and also at the receiver end.

(a) Setting industries far away from the residential area.

(b) Planting trees on both sides of the road.

(c) Restricted use of loudspeakers, fire crackers etc.

(d) Industrial machines and automobile engines should be designed with shock absorption
system, efficient fluid flow system and silencers. Machine should be properly installed with
proper lubrication and regular replacement of components.

(e) Use of reflectors to reflect noise in different directions. Use of noise filters to absorb high
and low frequency noise.

(f) Use of acoustic materials in floors, ceilings etc. Use of ear plugs.

(g) Green Muffler: In a given noise polluted area trees are planted 4-6 rows surrounding the
area to reduce the noise level. This series of trees surrounding the noise polluted area is called
Green Muffler.

The applications of ultrasonic sound waves (USW or UHF)

Audible sound frequency range The human ear can detect the sound within the
frequency range 20 𝐻𝑧 to 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧.

Sound waves with frequency more than 20 kHz is called ultrasonic sound waves. There are
several applications of ultrasonic waves, known as USW or UHF. Some are listed below

1. It is widely used to detect flaws in materials as well as to measure thickness of materials.

Usually ultrasonic sound waves of range 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧 is used for this purpose.
2. Sound Navigation And Ranging (SONAR) USW is used to detect sunken ship, hill or
submarines under the sea. It is also used to navigate and communicate under the sea. It is
used to measure the depth of ocean as well as to scan the bottom of the ocean.
3. Medical applications
(a) ECG USW is used in ECG machine to get the image of the heart.
(b) USG USW is used in USG machine to get the images of body organs.
(c) Lithotripsy USW is used to break stones in kidneys.

Prof. ABM 3 MC-401

 Soil Pollution
Causes of soil pollution
1. Direct discharge of harmful industrial chemicals to the land without treatment.
2. Excessive use of pesticides in agricultural sectors causes severe soil pollution.
3. Direct discharge of nuclear wastes and radioactive minerals.
4. Direct discharge of municipal solid waste to the fertile land area.
5. Cutting wood increases desert area.
6. Excessive harvesting of plants and animals.
7. Water pollution.
Control of soil pollution
1. Restricted use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Use of biofertilizers is recommended.
2. Recycling of solid wastes not only helps restoring the soil quality and but also conserves the
natural resources.
3. Plantation of trees to check deforestation.
4. Maintenance of soil quality to check soil erosion.
5. Domestic and municipal wastes should be treated anaerobically to generate biogas and
sludge which can be used as fertilizers.
6. Limited harvesting.
7. Checking water pollution.
Hazardous solid waste
Any substance, having any one of the following characteristics, is known as hazardous
substance.

Ignitable substance
The material, which easily catches fire and continues to burn even if the source of fire is taken
away, is called ignitable substance.

Reactive substance
The material, which releases toxic fumes and gases when heated, is called reactive substance.

Corrosive substance
The liquid, having 𝑝𝐻 less than 2 or more than 12, is called corrosive liquid.

Toxic substance
The material, which has harmful effect on human body whenever ingested or injected or
absorbed, is called toxic substance.

Prof. ABM 1 Environmental Science

Factors influencing municipal solid waste (MSW) generation
(a) Geographic location.
(b) Season.
(c) Frequency of waste collection.
(d) Population.
(e) Extent of recycling.
(f) Habits and economic status of the people living in that area.
Processing of solid waste
Purpose
(a) To improve the efficiency of solid waste management system.
(b) To recover the usable materials for reuse.
Some techniques of processing
Compaction
Reduction in volume is an important factor in solid waste management system. Solid wastes
are usually compacted by using special equipment and at high pressure.
Incineration
In this method solid wastes are burnt in open atmosphere to reduce the volume. Original
volume of solid wastes may be reduced by about 80% to 90%. However, air pollution is the main
disadvantage of this method.
Shredding
In this method the size of a given waste is reduced almost uniformly by grinding.
Component separation
It is a process by which reusable materials are recovered from solid wastes. It can be done either
by manually or by mechanically. In the manual separation process further processing of wastes
is not required. However, in mechanical separation process, magnetic separation, screening etc.
are used to separate reusable materials.
Drying
Sludge materials of different treatment plants are first compacted, filtered and then dried up
before extracting reusable materials.

Some techniques of disposal of solid waste

Open dumping
Generally low lying areas of the outskirts of cities are used for that purpose. However, the open
dumping of solid wastes pollutes the environment significantly and damages public health.

Prof. ABM 2 Environmental Science

Incineration
Simple burning of solid wastes at high temperature is called incineration. However, it leads to
sufficient air pollution. So the incineration plant should be well designed as per air pollution
standards.
Sanitary land filling
Solid waste is sprayed and compacted in thin layers within a small area. This layer is called
cell. The cell depth usually lies within 2m. The cell is sealed by a cover of thickness 20cm.
Several of such cells are placed uniformly followed by compaction. The method is biological
treatment of solid wastes. The treatment procedure has the following stages
1st phase
Aerobic decomposition is allowed to take place with increase in oxygen deficit along with the
liberation of heat. So temperature increases.
2nd phase
In this phase oxygen deficit reaches maximum and anaerobic decomposition occurs with
evolution of hydrogen, methane, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia etc. Methane gas is produced
continuously and ultimately the waste is stabilized, indicating the end of the 2nd phase.
3rd phase
Anaerobic decomposition is completed and aerobic condition prevails.
Composting
Microorganisms, present in the solid wastes, decompose the organics to produce soil
conditioner. The method is known as composting. It is an aerobic process. Initially temperature
increases and then decreases. This decrease in temperature indicates the end point of
composting process.
1st stage
Mesophillic bacteria decomposes organics to release 𝐶𝑂 and heat. Temperature rises to about
45℃.
2nd stage
Thermophillic bacteria continues decomposition process with rise in temperature. Temperature
rises to about 60℃.
3rd stage
Temperature decreases, indicating that the decomposition process is complete and the wastes
becomes stabilized. The final compost has a typical smell and dark brown colour.

Prof. ABM 3 Environmental Science

 Population Growth model
Population growth of a region may be calculated by any one of the following methods
1. Discrete growth.
2. Exponential growth.
3. Logistic growth.

Discrete growth model

Population of a region is enumerated separately for a several years and an average growth rate
r is considered. Then we can write

𝑁 = 𝑁 (1 + 𝑟), 𝑁 = 𝑁 (1 + 𝑟) = 𝑁 (1 + 𝑟) , 𝑁 = 𝑁 (1 + 𝑟) = 𝑁 (1 + 𝑟)

𝑁 =𝑁 (1 + 𝑟) = 𝑁 (1 + 𝑟)

𝑁 = 𝑁 (1 + 𝑟) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)

Exponential growth model

Rate of increase of population is directly proportional to the existing number of population only.
Proportionality constant is called average growth rate constant, 𝑟.

𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
∝ 𝑁. 𝑂𝑟, = 𝑟𝑁 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

On integration we get 𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑒 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (3)

The exponential growth curve is shown in the figure below.

Figure 1 Exponential growth curve.

Prof. ABM 1 Environmental Science

Doubling time (𝒕𝒅 )
The time required to double up the population. 𝑁 = 2𝑁 .
Putting this value of 𝑁 in the above equation we get

0.693
𝑡 =
𝑟

Half-life period 𝒕𝟏/𝟐

The time required to decay the population to half of the original population.

𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
− ∝ 𝑁. 𝑂𝑟, = −𝑟𝑁.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

On integration we get
𝑁
𝑁 =𝑁 𝑒 . 𝑂𝑟, ln = 𝑟𝑡
𝑁

At 𝑡 = 𝑡 ⁄ , 𝑁 = 𝑁 . Using this boundary condition in the above equation we get

0.693
𝑡 / =
𝑟

Logistic growth model

According to this model continuous exponential growth of population cannot occur due to (i)
limited food supply and (ii) environmental pollution. A study was conducted on a species of
bacteria as shown in the figure below. Different phases are marked as 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑.

Figure 2 Population growth curve of a species of bacteria.

Prof. ABM 2 Environmental Science

Lag phase (𝒂) In this phase population growth is minimum since organisms
need some time period to be adapted with the new environment.

Exponential phase (𝒃) Population growth is very rapid. Food supply is enough to grow
population at a very fast rate.

Stationary phase (𝒄) In this phase population reaches a maximum, food supply is
limited and further growth ceases to occur. The maximum population is called carrying capacity
of the environment. So carrying capacity is defined as the maximum population that the
environment can carry without any adverse effect. It is represented by the symbol 𝐾.

Death phase (𝒅) At this phase environment becomes hostile sufficiently so that the
population starts declining. Environmental resistance is dominating at this phase.

Considering all the phases the population growth equation is can be modified to the following
form

𝑑𝑁 𝑁 𝑑𝑁 𝑁
∝𝑁 1− . 𝑂𝑟, = 𝑟𝑁 1 − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝐾 𝑑𝑡 𝐾

where, 𝑟 = average growth rate constant. 𝐾 =Carrying capacity of the environment.

𝑁
1− = 𝐸𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.
𝐾

Environmental resistance
When population reaches carrying capacity of the environment, food supply is limited and the
environment resists any further growth of population. This is called environmental resistance.

The equation (4) can be written as

𝑑(𝑁⁄𝐾 ) 𝑁 𝑁 𝑑(𝑁⁄𝐾 ) 1 1
=𝑟 1− . 𝑂𝑟, = 𝑟𝑑𝑡. 𝑂𝑟, + 𝑑(𝑁⁄𝐾 ) = 𝑟𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐾 𝐾 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝐾 1−𝐾 𝐾 1−𝐾

𝑑(𝑁⁄𝐾 ) 𝑑(𝑁⁄𝐾 ) (𝑁⁄𝐾 )

𝑂𝑟, + = 𝑟𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶. 𝑂𝑟, 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑟𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝐾 1−𝐾 1−𝐾

𝐾
𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = 𝜏, 𝑁=
2
Using this boundary condition in the above equation, we get 𝐶 = −𝑟𝜏
𝑁
(𝑁⁄𝐾 ) 1−𝐾
𝑂𝑟, ln = 𝑟𝑡 − 𝑟𝜏 = 𝑟(𝑡 − 𝜏). 𝑂𝑟, ln = −𝑟(𝑡 − 𝜏)
𝑁 (𝑁⁄𝐾 )
1−𝐾

𝐾
𝑂𝑟, ln − 1 = −𝑟(𝑡 − 𝜏) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (5)
𝑁

Prof. ABM 3 Environmental Science

 𝐾 ( ) 𝐾 ( )
𝑂𝑟, −1=𝑒 . 𝑂𝑟, = 1+𝑒
𝑁 𝑁
𝐾
𝑂𝑟, 𝑁= ( )
⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (6)
1+𝑒

Equations (5) and (6) are known as logistic equations of population growth. The logistic growth
curve is shown in the figure below.

Figure 3 Logistic growth curve.

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑁 = 𝑁 . Using this boundary condition in the equation (5), we get

𝐾 1 𝐾
ln − 1 = 𝑟𝜏. 𝑂𝑟, 𝜏 = ln − 1 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (7)
𝑁 𝑟 𝑁

Relation between 𝒓 and 𝑹𝟎

It has been assumed that initially, i.e., around 𝑁 = 𝑁 , logistic growth rate is equal to
exponential growth rate. If 𝑅 is the initial exponential growth rate constant, equation (2)
becomes

𝑑𝑁
=𝑅 𝑁
𝑑𝑡 ≈

Again, the initial logistic growth rate can be calculated from equation (4)

𝑑𝑁 𝑁
= 𝑟𝑁 1−
𝑑𝑡 ≈ 𝐾

The above two equations lead to the following result

𝑁 𝐾
𝑟𝑁 1− = 𝑅 𝑁 . 𝑂𝑟, 𝑟 = 𝑅 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (8)
𝐾 𝐾−𝑁

Prof. ABM 4 Environmental Science

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)
Definition
Population of any species increases due to increase in growth rate, survival rate and
reproductive rate. On the other hand population decreases due to increase in death rate and
harvesting rate. So the population growth usually follows logistic growth model as shown in the
Fig.3. The logistic growth equation is

𝑑𝑁 𝑁
= 𝑟𝑁 1 − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝐾

The corresponding plot of growth rate (𝑑𝑁⁄𝑑𝑡) versus population size (𝑁) is shown in the
following figure

Figure 4 Growth rate versus population using logistic model.

𝑑𝑁⁄𝑑𝑡 indicates growth rate or sustainable yield. The curve shows that sustainable yield
becomes maximum at a certain population, at which sustainable yield is called maximum
sustainable yield or MSY. To find out MSY 1st derivative of 𝑑𝑁⁄𝑑𝑡 is set to zero.

𝑑 𝑁 𝑁 𝑑𝑁 𝑁 𝑑𝑁 𝐾
=𝑟 1− − = 0. 𝑂𝑟, 𝑁 =
𝑑𝑡 𝐾 𝑑𝑡 𝐾 𝑑𝑡 2

Putting this value of 𝑁 in equation (4), we get

𝑑𝑁 𝑟𝐾 𝑅 𝐾
𝑀𝑆𝑌 = = = ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (9)
𝑑𝑡 4 𝑁
4 1− 𝐾

Significances of MSY
(a) In a given ecosystem, if the number of individuals, greater than the MSY, is harvested, the
population will decline to extinction.
(b) If harvesting is carried out at the MSY level, population size of that species will remain
constant.
(c) Harvesting below MSY level leads to a stable equilibrium population.

Prof. ABM 5 Environmental Science

Applications of MSY
(a) The term MSY is widely used in fisheries. For a given pond ecosystem it represents the
maximum possible harvesting of fishes without disturbing the original population size.
(b) It helps us give an idea about optimum use of stock under existing environmental conditions.
(c) In economic field, another term maximum economic yield (MEY), similar to MSY, is used to
provide optimum economic benefits to society.
(d) The MSY concept is widely used by state and federal government agencies regulating
wildlife, forests, and fishing.
Solved problem
In 1960, the world’s population was 3 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 and growth rate was 1.5% per year. Steady-state
population is 10 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛. When would the population reach 5 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛? What would be the
projected population in 1990 and 2015 using logistic model?

Solution

𝑅 1 𝐾 1 𝐾
𝑟= , 𝜏 = ln −1 , 𝑡 = 𝜏 − ln −1
𝑁 𝑟 𝑁 𝑟 𝑁
1− 𝐾

𝐾 = 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 10 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑅 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 0.015.

𝑁 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 3 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝜏 = Time required to reach the population 𝐾 ⁄2 = 5 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛.

0.015 1 10
𝑟= = 0.0214, 𝜏= ln − 1 = 39.59 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠.
3 0.0214 3
1 − 10

1 10
𝑡 = 1990 − 1960 = 30 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 39.59 − ln −1
0.0214 𝑁
10
ln − 1 = (39.59 − 30) × 0.0214 = 0.205. 𝑁 = 4.49 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑁
1 10
𝑡 = 2015 − 1960 = 55 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 39.59 − ln −1
0.0214 𝑁
10
ln − 1 = (39.59 − 55) × 0.0214 = −0.33. 𝑁 = 5.82 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛.
𝑁

Prof. ABM 6 Environmental Science