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 CONTENTS

Geography
History
Polity
Economy
Science
 GEOGRAPHY
Topic: 1
The Earth in the Solar System :

If we look at sky in the night it seems to be filled with tiny shining

objects-some are bright, Others are dim. They seem to be
twinkling.
Once in a month, we see full moon night of a fortnight later, you
cannot see it at all. It is a new moon night or ‘Amavasya’.
The sun, moon, stars and planets and all those objects shining in
the night are called celestial bodies.
Some celestial bodies are very big and hot.
They are made of gas, have their own heat and light.
They emit in large amounts. These celestial bodies are called stars.
The sun is a star.
While watching the night sky, we notice various patterns formed
by different groups of stars.
These are called constellations.
Ursa Major is one such constellation.
In ancient times, people used to determine directions during the
night with the help of stars.
The North Star indicates the north direction. It is also called pole
star.
Some celestial bodies do not have their own heat and light. They
are lit by the light of the stars. Such bodies are called planets.
The Solar System:
The sun, eight planets, satellites and some other celestial bodies
known as asteroids and meteoroids form the solar system.
The Sun:
(i) The sun is the centre of solar system.
(ii) It is huge and made up of extremely hot gases.
 (iii) The sun is the ultimate source of heat and light for the solar
system.
Planets:
(i) The word ‘planet’ comes from the Greek word ‘Planetai’ which
means wanderers.
(ii) There are eight planets in our solar system-Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
(iii) All the eight planets of the solar system move around the sun
in fixed paths. These paths are elongated. They are called orbits.
(iv) Till August 2006, Pluto was also a planet. But now it is called
only a celestial body.

Topic: 2
Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes

A globe is a true model of the earth:

The globes are of varying sizes and types.
Globe can be rotated in the same way as a top spin or potter’s
wheel is rotated.
Axis-The imaginary line passing through the centre of the earth
and joining the two points.
A needle is fixed through the globe in a titled manner, which is
called its axis.
Another imaginary circular line running on the globe divides it the
earth into two equal parts.
This line is called as Equator.
The northern half of the earth is known as the Northern
Hemisphere and the southern half is called the Southern
Hemisphere.
All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are called
parallels of latitudes.
The equator represents the zero degree latitude.
Besides the equator (0 degree celcius), the North Pole 90 degree
North), the South Pole (90 degree South).

The area which receives the maximum heat is called the Torrid
zone.
 The areas around Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere,
have medium temperature. These are called Temperature Zones.
These are certain cold areas in the hemisphere. They are called
Frigid Zones.
What are Longitudes: Unlike parallel of latitude, all meridians are
of equal length.
Hence, all countries decided that the count should begin from the
meridian which passed through Greenwich, where the British
Royal Observatory is located. This meridian is called the Prime
Meridian.
Longitude and Time:The best means of measuring time is by the
movement of the earth, the moon and the planets.
The sun regularly rises and sets every day, and naturally. It is the
best time-keeper throughout the world.
Local time can be reckoned by the shadow cast by the sun, which
is the shortest at noon and longest at sunrise and sunset.

Topic: 3
Motions of the Earth

The Earth has two types of motions namely, rotation and

revolution.
Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. Days and Nights
take place because of rotation.
Revolution is the movement of the earth around the Sun in a fixed
path or orbit. Revolution causes the change of seasons.
The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the
circle of illumination.
Revolution:

The second motion of the earth around the sun in its orbit is called
revolution.
It takes 365 days and 6 hours (one year) to revolve around the sun.
We consider a year as consisting of 365 days only and ignore six hours
for the sake of convenience.

Six hours saved every year are likely to make one day (24 hours)
 over a span of four years.
This surplus day is added to the month of February.
Every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. This
year with 366 days is called a leap year.
The earth goes around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
The nights are longer than the days in winter season. This position
of the earth is called as summer solstice.
On 22nd December the Tropic of Capricorn gets direct rays of the
sun as the South Pole tilts towards it.
Summer in Southern hemisphere and winter in Northern
hemisphere. This is called winter solstice.
On 21st March and 23rd September, direct rays of the sun fall
directly on the equator.
During this period, the whole earth experiences equal days and
equal nights. This is called an equinox.

Topic: 4
Maps

A map is a representation or a drawing of earth’s surface or part of

it, drawn on a flat surface according to a scale.
Type: Maps are of several types.
Maps showing natural features of the earth are called physical or
relief maps.
Maps showing cities, town and villages, countries and states of the
world with their boundaries are called political maps.
Some maps focus on specific information like rainfall map, road
maps, maps of tourist places are called thematic maps.

Components of Maps:
There are three components of maps-distance, direction and
symbol.
Distance is measured in terms of scale. Scale is the ration between
the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the
map.
When large areas like contintents or countries are to be shown on a
paper, then we use a small scale.
 When a small area like your village to town in to be shown on
paper, then we use a large scale map.
Directions are cardinal points like North, South, East and West.
Symbols are certain letters, shades, colours, pictures and lines,
which give us information about a limited place.
Various other things like sketches and plan are used to draw an
area of a large scale.

Topic: 5
Major Domains of the Earth

The earth is the only planet which has life. Human beings can live
here because the life sustaining elements of land, water and air are
present on the earth.
The earth has four components-Lithosphere, Atmosphere,
Hydrosphere and Biosphere.
Lithosphere: The solid portion of the earth is called the lithosphere.

There are two divisions of the earth’s surface. The large and
masses are called continents and the huge water bodies are called
the ocean basins.
The highest mountain peak Mt. Everest is 8,848 metres above the
sea level.
There are seven main continents-Asia, Europe, Africa, North
America, South America, Australia and Antartica.
Hydrosphere: More than 71% of the earth is covered with water.
Hydrosphere consists of water in all its forms. It includes the water
in rivers, lakes, oceans and glaciers.
More than 97% of the earth’s surface water is found in the oceans
and is too salty for human use.
Oceans: Oceans are huge water-bodies and major of the
hydrosphere.
The three chief movements of ocean waters are the waves, the
tides and ocean currents.
Some major oceans in the world are the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic
 Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.
Atmosphere: The envelope of air surrounding the earth is called
the atmosphere.
It provides us with the air we breathe and protects us from the
harmful effects of the sun’s rays.
The atmosphere has 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and other gases
like carbon and argon are 1% by volume.
Biosphere: It is a narrow zone of contact between the land, water
and air.
All the living organisms including human beings are linked to each
other and are dependent upon the biosphere for survival.

Topic: 6
Major Landforms of the Earth

Within the earth a continuous movement is taking place.

The first is internal process which leads to upliftment and sinking
of the earth’s surface at several places.
The second is the external process. It is the continuous wearing
down and rebuilding of the land surface.
The wearing away of the earth’s surface is called erosion.
The surface is being lowered by the process of erosion and rebuilt
by the process of deposition.
These two processes are carried out but running water, ice and
wind.
The different landforms depending on elevation and slope are
mountains, plateaus and plains.
Mountains: A mountain is any natural elevation of the earth’s
surface with a peak or a summit.

In some mountains, there are permanently frozen rivers of ice.

They are called glaciers.
A continuous chain of mountains over a large area is called
‘Range’.
The Himalayas, The Alps and The Andes in Asia, Europe and
South America respectively are some leading mountains.
There are three types of mountains-Fold mountains, Block
 mountains and the Volcanic mountains.
Mountains are storehouse of water. Further they have forests
which give us fuel, fodder, shelter and other products.
Plateau: A plateau is a flat-topped table land. It is an elevated flat
land.
The Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus.
Plateaus are useful as they are rich in mineral deposits.’
Many plateaus have waterfalls. The lava plateaus have soil good
for cultivation.
Plains: Plains are low-lying and flat stretches of land.
Plains may be extremely level, slightly rolling and undulating.
Plains are fertile. They are good for cultivation, transport and
habitation.
Landforms and the People.
Human settlements are dependent upon types of landforms.
Areas which are dangerous or isolated have less habitation as
compared to areas which are palm or rich in minerals.

Topic: 7
Our Country-India

India is a country of vast geographical expanse.

In the north, it is bound by the lofty Himalayas, the Arabian Sea in
the west, The Bay of Bengal in the East and the Indian Ocean in
the south.
India has an area of 3.28 million sq km. The north-south stretch
from Kashmir to Kanyakumari is about 3,200 km and the east-west
extend from Arunanchal Pradesh to Kuchchh is about 2,900 km.
It is the second most populous county of the world after China.
Locational Setting: From south to north, main land of India
extends between 8 4' ° N and 37 6' ° N latitudes.

From west to east, India extends between 68 7 ' ° E and 97 24' ° E

longitudes.
The local time changes by four minutes for every one degree of
longitudes. The sun rises two hours earlier in the east (Arunachal
Pradesh) then in the west (Gujarat).
The local time of longitude of 82 30' ° E has been taken as the
Indian Standard time.
India’s: Neighbours and Administrative Divisions:
India shares its border with seven countries-Pakistan, China,
Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is
separated from India by the Palk Strait.
India is a vast country. For administrative purpose, the country is
divided into 28 states and 7 Union Territories. New Delhi is the
capital.
Rajasthan is the largest state and Goa is the smallest and Goa is the
smallest state in terms of area.
Physical Divisions.
India is marked by a diversity of physical features such as
mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts and islands.
In the north are the Himalayas meaning the ‘abode of snow’.
The Himalayas are divided into three main parallel ranges-Great
Himalayas or Himadri, the Middle Himalaya or Himachal and the
Shiwalik.
The Northern Indian Plains lie to the south of the Himalayas. They
have alluvial deposits made by the Indus, the Ganga, the
Brahmaputra and their tributaries.
In the western part of India is the Great Indian Desert.
To the South of Northern Plains lies the Peninsular Plateau. It has
the Aravalis, the Vindhyas, the Satpuras, the Narmada, the Tapi,
the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
West of Western Ghats and East of Eastern Ghats lie on the coastal
plains. The eastern coastal plains and the western coastal plains are
located here.
The Sunderban delta is formed where the Ganga and Brahamaputra
flow into the Bay of Bengal.
Two group of Islands also form part of India. One is the
Lakshdweep Island in the Arabian sea and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal.
India is situated in the northern hemisphere.
The Tropic of Cancer (23°30'N ) passes almost halfway through
the country.
Topic: 8
India: Climate, Vegetation and Wildlife

Climate:

In daily life, we hear about changes in weather and climate through

changes in temperature, rainfall, sunshine, etc.
These are four major seasons in India: Cold weather season
(winter) from December to February.
Hot weather season (summer) from March to May.
South-west Monsoon season (Rainy) from June to September.
Season of Retreating Monsoon (Autumn) from October and
November.
The climate of a place is affected by its location, altitude, distance
from the sea and relief.
Natural Vegetation: It includes all sorts of trees, shrubs and
grasses. Natural vegetation is dependent upon climate conditions
and the amount of rainfall a place receives.
It is of various types: Tropical Rainforests occur in areas of heavy
rainfall. They are also called evergreen forests.
Tropical Deciduous Forests occur in areas with monsoon and are
found in the areas receiving between 100 cm and 200 cm of annual
rainfall. They are also called monsoon forest.
Mountain vegetation is found in areas with height, like the
mountainous areas.
Mangrove forests survive in saline water.
Why are Forests Necessary: Forests release oxygen which we
breathe and absorb carbon dioxide.
They prevent soil erosion.
They provide timber for furniture, fuel wood, medicinal plants,
honey, gum, etc.
They are the natural habitat of wildlife.
Reckless cutting of trees should be stopped to prevent natural
vegetation.
Wildlife: Forests are home to a variety of wildlife.
Thousands of species of animals, and a large variety of reptiles,
amphibians, mammal, birds, insects and worms dwell in the forest.
 Tiger is found in various parts of the country and is our national
animal. Air forests in Gujarat are found lion, elephants, camels,
etc.
India is rich in bird life too. Peacock is our national bird. Other
common birds are parrots, pigeons, bulbul, etc.
Projects like Project Tiger and Project Elephant have been
launched to protect wildlife.

Topic: 9
Inside Our Earth

What is Earth:
The earth comprises of three layers: crust, mantle and core.
Constant changes take place inside as well as outside the earth.
What is the Interior of the Earth:The Earth is made of several
concrete layers. It is about 35 km on the constinental masses and
only 5 km on the ocean floors.
The uppermost layer over the earth’s surface is called the crust.
Silica and alumina are the main mineral constituents of the
continental mass. It is as called sial.
The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium called
sima.
Just below the crust is the mantle up to an extent of 2,900 km.
The innermost layer is core with a radius of 3,500 km. As it is
made of nickel and iron, it is called nife.
Rocks and Minerals:The earth’s crust is made of various types of
rocks. Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the
earth’s crust is called a rock.
There are three major types of rocks; igneous rocks, sedimentary
rocks and metamorphic rocks.
when the molten magma cools, it becomes solid. Rocks thus
formed are called igneous or primary rocks. They are of two types,
extrusive igneous rocks and intrusive igneous rocks.
Rocks roll down and break into small fragments and these smaller
particles are called sediments. These sediments are transported,
compressed and hardened to form layers of rocks. These types of
rocks are called sedimentary rock.
 Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks
under great heat and pressure.
The process of transformation of the rock from one to another is
called the rock cycle.
Rocks are made of different minerals. Minerals are naturally
occurring substances
which have certain physical properties and definite chemical
composition.

Topic: 10
Our Changing Earth

The lithosphere is broken down into a number of plates known as

the Lithosphere plates.
The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface of the
earth. The forces that act in the interior of the earth are called
endogenic forces, while the forces that work on the surface of the
earth are called exogenic forces.
Sudden movements like earthquake and volcanoes cause most
destruction over the surface of the earth.
A volcano is a vent (opening) in the earth’s crust through which
molten material erupts suddenly.
The vibration in the plates of earth is called a earthquake.
The place in the crust where the movement starts is called the
focus.
The place on the surface above the focus is called the epicenter.
Although earthquakes cannot be predicted, the impact can certainly
be minimized.
Major Landforms:The landscapes are continuously worn away by
two forces, weathering and erosion.

Weathering is the breaking down of the rocks on the earht’s

surface.
Erosion is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents
like water, wind and ice.

Work of a River: When the river tumbles at a steep angle over hard
rocks or down a steep valley side, it forms a waterfall.
 As the river enters the plain, it twists and turns, forming large
bends known as meanders.
At this point of time, the meander loop cuts off from the river and
forms a cut-off called ox-bow lake.
During flooding, the river deposits layer of fine soil and other
materials called sediments along its banks. This leads to the
formation of a flat fertile plain called floodplain.
The raised banks along the river are called levees.
The collection of sediments from all the mouths forms a delta.
Work of Sea Waves: The erosion and deposition of the sea waves
gives rise to coastal landforms.
Due to sea waves, hollow-like caves and formed on the rocks.
They are called sea caves.
As cavities become bigger in size, only the roof of the caves
remain, thus forming sea arches.
The erosion further breaks the roof and only walls are left. It is
called stacks.
The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water is
called sea cliff.
Work of Ice: Glaciers are rivers of ice which erode the landscape
by building soil and stones to expose the solid rocks below.
The material carried by the glaciers, such as big and small rocks,
sand and silt gets deposited. These deposits form glacial moraines.
Work of Winds: An active agent of erosion and deposition in the
deserts is wind. It makes rocks in shape of a mushroom, called
mushroom rocks.
When the wind stops blowing, the sand falls and get deposited in
low hill like structures. These are called sand dunes.
When the grains of sand are very fine and light, the wind can carry
it over long distances. When such sand is deposited in large areas,
it is called loess.

Topic: 11
Air
Our atmosphere is surrounded by a huge blanket of air called
atmosphere.
Composition of the Atmosphere:

Nitrogen and oxygen are the two gases which make up the bulk of
the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide, helius, ozone, argon and hydrogen are found in
lesser quantities.
Apart from these gases, tiny dust particles are also present in air.
Structure of the Atmosphere: Our atmosphere is divided into five
layers starting from the earth’s surface.
The first layer is the Troposphere whose average height is 13 km.
The second layer is the Stratosphere which extends up to 50 km.
The third layer is the Mesosphere which extends up to the height
of 80 km.
The fourth layer is the Thermosphere which extends from 80 km to
400 km.
The uppermost layer of atmosphere is Exosphere which has very
thin air.
Weather and Climate: Weather is the hour-to-hour, day-to-day
condition of the atmosphere.
The average weather condition of a place for a longer period of
time represents the climate of a place.
Temperature:
The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is called temperature.
The temperature of the atmosphere changes not only between day
and night but also from season to season.
An important factor that influences the distribution of temperature
is Insolation.
Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth.
The amount of Insolation decreases from the equator towards the
poles.
Air Pressure: Air pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the
weight of air on the earth’s surface.
Horizontally the distribution of air pressure is influenced by
temperature of air at a given place.
In areas having lower temperature, the air is cold.
 The air always moves from high pressure areas to low-pressure
areas.
Wind:The movement of air from high-pressure areas to low-
pressure area is called wind.
Winds can be broadly divided into three types: permanent winds,
seasonal winds and local winds.
On 25 October 1999, cyclonic winds originated as a depression
and affected Odisha killing thousands of people.
Moisture:When water evaporates from land and another water
bodies, it becomes water vapour.
Moisture in the air at any time is known as humidity.
When the water vapour rises, it starts cooling. The water vapour
condenses causing the formation of droplets of water.
When these droplets of water become too heavy to float in air, they
come down as precipatation.
Precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form is called
rain.
On the basis of mechanism, there are three types of rainfall: the
convectional rainfall, the and the cyclonic rainfall.
Rainfall is very important for the survival of plants and animals.

Topic: 12
Water

The sun’s heat causes evaporation of water vapour. When the

water vapour cools down, it
condenses and forms clouds. From there, it may fall on the land or
sea in the form of rain, snow or sleet.
The process by which water continually changes its form and
circulates between oceans, atmosphere and land to known as the
water cycle.
Our earth is like a terrarium.
The major source of fresh water are the rivers, ponds, springs and
glaciers.
The ocean bodies and the seas contain salty water.
Distribution of Water on Earth:
About three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered by water.
 The following table gives the distribution of water in percentage:
Sources Percentage
Oceans 97.3
Ice-caps 02.0
Ground water 0.68
Fresh water lakes 0.009
Inland seas and salt lakes 0.009
Atmosphere 0.0019
Rivers 0.0001
Water is absolutely essential for survival.
Movements:
Unlike the calm waters of ponds and lakes, ocean water keeps
moving continuously.
The movements which occur in oceans are of three types: waves,
tides and currents.
Waves: When the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls
alternately, they are called waves.
An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or underwater landslides can
shift large amounts of ocean water. As a result, huge tidal wave
may be formed which is called tsunami.
Tsunami in South and South-East Asian coast had caused havoc in
December 2004.
Tides: The rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day is
called a tide.
Tides are two types: spring tides and neap tides.
Ocean Currents: Ocean currents are streams of water flowing
constantly on the ocean surface in different directions.
Ocean currents are of two types, warm and cold.
The Labrador ocean current is a cold current, while the Gulf
Stream is a warm curren

Topic: 13
Natural Vegetation and Wildlife

Natural vegetation is the plant life of a region.

Natural vegetation is of three types: forest, grasslands and shrubs.
The changes in the type of natural vegetation mainly occurs
 because of the changes of the climate region.
Forests: Forests are of six types: Tropical Evergreen, Tropical
Deciduous, Temperate

Evergreen, Temperate Decidous, Mediterranean, Vegetation, and

Coniferous forests.
Tropical Decidous Forests are monsoon forests which shed their
leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
Temperate Evergreen Forests are located in mid-latitudinal coastal
region.
Temperate Deciduous Forests are those which shed their leaves in
the dry season.
Mediterranean Vegetation is found around Mediterranean Sea in
Europe.
Confirous Forests are found in areas along the Taiga.
Grasslands:Tropical grasslands occurs on either side of the equator
and extend till the tropics.
Temperate grasslands are found in mid-latitudinal zones and in the
interior part of the continents.
Thorny Bushes:Thorny bushes are found in the dry desert like
regions.
These are found in areas with scanty rain and scorching heat.
Tundra Vegetation:Tundra vegetation growth of natural vegetation
is very limited here.
It is found in polar areas.
Tropical Evergreen Forests are those which occur in the region
near the equator and close to the tropics.

Topic: 14
Human Environment Settlement, Transport and Communication

Human beings are dependent on environment.

To grow food, build homes and developed better means of
transport and communication, human beings have modified the
environment.

Settlements: Settlements are places where people build their

homes.
The settlements earlier grew near the river valleys as water was
easily available and land was fertile.
Settlements can be permanent or temporary.
Settlements which are occupied for a short time are called
temporary settlements.
In permanent settlements, people build homes to live in.
Settlements can be rural or urban. Rural settlements can be
compact or scattered.
People in rural areas practice agriculture. In urban area, people are
mostly engaged in services.
Transport: Transport is the means by which people and goods
move.
With the invention of wheel, transport, became easier.
Earlier donkeys, mules, bullocks and camels were used for
transportation.
Earlier traders took land route or sea route for transportation. Now
it takes only 6-8 hours to travel from India to Europe.
The four major means of transport are roadways, railways,
waterways and airways.
Roadways: The most commonly used means of transport
especially for short distances, are roads. They can be metalled or
unmetalled.
Railways: The railways carry heavy goods and people over long
distances quickly and economically.
The invention of steam engine and industrial revolution helped in
speedy development of rail transport.
Diesel and electric engine have largely replaced the steam engines.
Now super fast trains have been introduced to make travelling
faster.
Indian railways network is the largest in Asia.
Waterways: Waterways are the cheapest for carrying heavy and
bulky goods over long distance.
There are manly two types of routes, inland waterways and sea
routes.
Navigable rivers and lakes are used as inland waterways.
Sea routes are connected through ports.
Airways: It is the fastest means of transport developed in the early
 twentieth century.
It is the only mode of transport to reach the most remote and
distant areas especially where there are no roads and railways.
Some major airports in the world are Delhi, Mumbai, New York,
London, Paris, Frankfurt and Cairo.
Communication: Communication is the process of conveying
messages to others.
Different modes of communication are used to provide
information, to educate as well as to entertain.
Through newspaper, radio and television, we can communicate
with a large number of people. They are, therefore, called mass
media.
Satellites, Internet, Wireless telephone are main modes of
communication.

Topic: 15
Human Environment Interaction: The Tropical and the Subtropical Region

Human beings interact with environment and are dependent on it

for a number of things.
Life in the Amazon Basin: Amazon river was discovered by a
Spanish explorer, Vicente Yanez Pinzon.

The Amazon basin lies in the tropical region close to the equator
between 10°N and 10°S , and the river Amazon flows through this
region.
The Amazon river basin drains portions of Brazil, parts of Peru,
Bolivia, Ecuador, Columbia and a small part of Venezuela.
Climate: The Amazon basin stretches directly on the equator and
its characterized by hot and west climate throughout the year.
There is heavy rainfall and high humidity.
Rainforest: As it rains heavily, thick forests grow in this region.
The forests are in fact so thick that the dense roof created by leaves
and branches do not allow the sunlight to reach the ground.
The rainforest is rich in fauna.
The basin is home to thousands of species of insects.
People of the Rainforests: People grow most of the their food in
 small areas after clearing some trees in the forest.
Slash and burn agriculture is prevalent.
The development activities are leading to gradual destruction of
the biologically diverse rainforest.
Life in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin:
The tributaries of rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra together form the
Ganga-Brahmaputra basin in the Indian subcontinent.
The plains of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, the mountains and
foothills of the Himalayas and the Sunderbans delta are the main
features of this region.
The basin area has varied topography. The mountain areas with
steep slopes have inhospitable terrain.
Agriculture is the main occupation of the people where flat land is
available to grow new crops.
Wheat, maize sorghum, gram and millets are the important crops
of the region.
The vegetation cover of the area varies according to the type of
landforms.
There is a variety of wildlife in the basin. In the delta areas, Bengal
tiger, crocodiles and alligators are found.
Fish and rice is the staple diet of the people.
The Ganga-Brahmaputra plain has several big towns and cities like
Allahabad, Kanpur, Varanasi and Lucknow.
All the four means of transport are well-developed in the Ganga-
Brahmaputra basin.
Tourism is an important activity of the region.

Topic: 16
Life in the Temperate Grasslands

Grassland is a region where grasses from the dominant type of

plant life.
Depending upon the climate conditions, grasslands can be divided
into two categories, the temperate grasslands and the tropical
grasslands.
The Prairies: The temperate grasslands of North-America are
known as the Prairies.
 For the most part, Prairies are tree-less but, near the low-lying
areas woodlands can be found. The prairies are bound by the
Rocky Mountains in the West and the Great Lakes in the East.
Prairies cover major parts of USA and Canada.
Climate: Climate is of continental type with extreme temperature.
The annual rainfall is moderate and is ideal for the grown of grass.
Flora and Fauna: Prairies are practically tree-less but the places
where water is available, trees such as willows, alders and poplars
grow.
Places that receive rainfall of over 50 cm, are suitable for farming
as the soil is fertile.
Large-scale cattle farms called ranches are looked after by the
sturdy men called cowboys.
Bison or the American buffalo is the most important animal.
The Velds: The temperate grasslands of South Africa are called the
velds.
Velds are rolling plateaus with varying heights ranging from 600
m to 1100 m.
It is bound y the Drakensburg Mountains on the east.
Climate: The velds have a mild climate due to the influence of the
Indian Oceans.
Winters are cold and dry. Temperature varies between 5°C and
10°C and July is the coldest month.
The velds receive rainfall mainly in the summer months from
November to February.
Flora and Fauna: Vegetation cover is sparse.
Red grass grows in bush velds.
People: Velds are known for cattle rearing and mining.
The main crops are maize, wheat, barley, oats and potatoes.
The velds have rich reserve of minerals.
Iron and steel industry has developed where coal and iron present.
Johannesburg is known as the gold capital of the world.

Topic: 17
Life in the Deserts

Desert is an arid region characterized by extremely high or low

temperatures and has scarce vegetation.
Depending on the temperature, there can be hot deserts or cold
deserts.
The Hot Desert-Sahara: Sahara Desert in Africa is the world’s
largest hot desert.

It touches 11 countries and has got gravel plains and elevated

plateaus with bare rocky surface.
The climate of Sahara is scorching hot and parch dry with
temperature as high as 50°C .
The nights are freezing cold with temperature nearing zero
degrees.
Vegetation in the Sahara Desert includes cactus, date palms and
acacia. Camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, snakes and
lizards are the main animal species found here.
Despite its harsh climate, Sahara is inhabited by various groups of
people. The main groups are Bedouins and Tuaregs.
The oasis in the Sahara and the Nile Valley in Egypt supports
settled population.
The discovery of oil is constantly transforming this region. Other
important minerals found here are iron, phosphorus, manganese
and uranium.
More and more nomadic tribes are taking to city life.
The Cold-Desert-Ladakh:
Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the
eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir.
The altitude in Ladakh varies from 3,000 m in Kargil to more than
8,000 m in Karakoram.
The area experiences freezing winds and burning hot sunlight.
Due to high aridity, the vegetation is sparse. Groves of willows and
poplars are seen in the valleys.
The animals of Ladakh are wild goats, wild sheep, yak and special
kinds of dogs.
The animals are reared as they provide milk, meat and hides.
The population consists of either Muslims or Buddhists.
Some famous Buddhist monasteries are Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and
Lamyuru.
 In summer season, the people are busy cultivating barley, potatoes,
peas, beans and turnips.
Tourism is a major activity with several tourists streaming in from
within India and abroad.
People of Ladakh have over the centuries learnt to live in balance
and harmony with nature.

Topic: 18
Resources and Development

Any object or substance, living or non-living, that has utility is

known as resources.
All resources have some value. Value means worth. Some
resources have economic value and some do not, but both are
important and satisfy human needs.
Some resources can become economically valuable with time.
Time and technology are the important factors that change
substances into resources.
Each discovery or invention leads to many others.
Types of Resources: Resources are categorized into natural, human
made and human.
Natural resources are those resources that are drawn from nature
and are used without much modification-air, water, soils, minerals
are the natural resources.
Natural resources are classified into different groups depending
upon their level of development and use, origin, renewability and
distribution.
On the basis of level of their development and use, resources can
be classified into actual and potential resources.
Potential resources are those resources whose entire quantity may
not be known and these are not being used at present and could be
used in the future. On the basis of origin, the natural resources can
be biotic or biotic.
Biotic resources include all the living things like plants and
animals.
A Biotic resources are non-living things like soil, rock and
minerals.
Natural Resources: On the basis of renewability, natural resources
can be categorized into renewable and
non-renewable resources.
Renewable resources are those which can get renewed or
replenished quickly, such as solar and wind energy.
Non-renewable resources are those which have a limited stock.
Once the stocks are exhausted it may take thousands of years to be
renewed or replenished, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Ubiquitous resources are found everywhere on the earth. Land,
water, air are ubiquitous resources.
Localized resources are found only in certain places, like copper
and iron ore.
The distribution of natural resources depends upon number of
physical factors like terrain, climate and attitude.
The distribution of resources is unequal across the earth.
Human Made Resources: The resources which are created from the
natural resources by the human resources by the human beings to
produce useful products are known as Human made
Resources. Like roads, machinery, vehicles, etc.
Technology is also a human made resources.
Human Resources: Human resources refers to the number and
abilities of the people. People can make the best use of nature to
create more resources when they have the knowledge, skill
and the technology. People are human resources.
Human resources development refers the improving the quality of
people’s skill so that they are able to create more resources.
Conserving Resources: Conservation of resources refers to using
natural resources carefully so that they could be renewed and
continue to be used in future.
Sustainable use of resources refers to carefully utilizing resources
and balancing the need to use resources and also conserve them for
the future generation.
It is our duty to ensure that all uses of renewable resources are
sustainable.
The diversity of life on the earth should be conserved.
The damage to natural environmental system should be minimized.
Topic: 19
Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources
Land, soil, water are the resources which belong to abiotic
resources and are the most
Important resources.
Whereas natural vegetation and wildlife resources come under
biotic resources.
Land: Land is among the most important natural resources. Land
covers about 30% of the total area of the earth’s surface.
Ninety percent of the world population occupies only 30% of the
land area. The
Remaining 70% of land is either sparsely populated or
uninhabited.
Land is unevenly inhabited due to various factors of land and
climate, water fertility of soil, etc.
Normally the sparsely populated or uninhabited areas are because
of rugged topography, steep slopes of the mountains, low -lying
areas susceptible to water logging, deserted areas and thickly
forested areas.
The densely populated areas of the world have plains, river valleys
which have Suitable land for agriculture.
Land use: Land use refers to the use of land use for different
purpose such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses,
roads and setting up of industries.
Factors affecting land use are of two kinds- (i) Physical factors and
(ii) Human factors.
Physical factors include topography, soil, climate and availability
of water. Human factors include population and technology.
On the basis of ownership, land can be classified as private and
community land.
Private land is owned by an individual or family members and is
used for personal purposes like house is a private land.
Community land is owned by the community for common uses and
can be used by anyone in the society like collection of fodder,
fruits, nuts or medical herbs. These community lands are also
called common property resources.
The demand for land by the people is growing but the availability
of land is limited.
The vast changes in the land use pattern shows the cultural changes
in our society.
Land degradation, landslides, soil erosion, desertification are the
major threats to the environment because of the expansion of
agriculture and construction activities.
Conservation of Land Resources: Growing population and their
ever-growing demand has led to a large scale destruction of forest
cover and arable land and has created a fear of losing these natural
resources.
The present rate of degradation of land must be checked.
The common methods used to conserve land resources are
afforestation, land reclamation, regulated use of chemical
pesticides and fertilisers and checks on overgrazing.
Soil: Soil is the thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface
of the earth.
Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks
found on earth.
Soil profile refers to the layered structure which spreads from the
parent rocks to the top soil surface.
The four layers of soil profile are: 1st layer-Top soil with humus
and vegetation, 2nd layer-Sub soil with sand, silt and clay, 3rd
layer-weathered rock material, 4th layer-Parent rock.
Factors of Soil Formation: The major factors of soil formation are
the nature of the parent rock and climatic
Factors. The other factors of soil formation are the topography,
role of organic material and time taken for composition of soil
formation.
Parent rock determines the colour, texture, chemical properties,
minerals, content and permeability of the soil.
Relief determines the altitude and slope and accumulation of soil.
Flora, fauna and micro-organism affect the rate of humus
formation in soil.
Climate determines temperature and rainfall which influence the
rate of weathering and humus in process of soil formation.
Time determines the sickness of soil profile. It takes hundreds of
years to make just on centimeter of soil.
Degradation of Soil and Conservation Measures:
The major threats to soil erosion and depletion.
Human beings and natural factors are responsible for degradation
of soils.
Deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical fertilisers or
pesticides, rain water, landslides and floods are the factors which
leads to soil degradation.
Soil conservation refers to the protection, efficient use of soil and
preservation of soil resources.
Mulching is the method in which the bare ground between plants is
covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain
soil moisture.
Contour barriers is the method in which stones, grass, soil are used
to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of
them to collect water.
In Terrace farming, broad flat steps or terraces are made on the
steep slopes, so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. It
reduces the surface runoff and soil erosion.
In intercropping, different crops are grown in alternate rows and
are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.
Contour ploughing is the process of ploughing parallel to the
contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier to stop water from
flowing down the slope.
Shelter belts are the rows of trees planted to check the wind
movements to protect soil cover.
Water: Water is a vital renewable natural resources. Three-fourths
of the earth’s surface is covered with water. Therefore, it is called
‘water plante’.
Ocean water is saline and not fit for human consumption whereas
fresh water accounts for only 2.7% of the total water available.
Only 1% of this freshwater is available and fit for human use and
is found as ground water, rivers, lakes, etc.
Fresh water is the most precious substance on earth. It can neither
be added nor subtracted from the earth.
Water is used for agriculture, industries, generating electricity
through reservoirs of dams, etc.
The major causes of water shourtage are increasing population,
risign demands for food and cash crops, increasing urbanization
and rising standards of living.
Problem of Water Availability: There is water shortage in many
regions of the world. It may be a consequence of variation of
seasonal or annual precipitation or the scarcity is caused by over-
exploitation and contamination of water sources.
Countries located in climatic zones are most susceptible to
droughts and face great problems of water scarcity.
Conservation of Water Resources: The major problem of today’s
world is shortage of clean and adequate water sources.
Steps should be taken to conserve water.
Water is a renewable resource, but its overuse and pollution make
it unfit for use.
Sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial waste pollute the
water with nitrates, metals and pesticides.
Forest and other vegetation cover slow the surface runoff and
replenish underground water.
Water harvesting method can also be used to save surface runoff.
Canals used for irrigation sould be properly checked for water
losses through seepage and evaporation.
Rain water harvesting is the process of collecting rain water from
roof tops and directing it to an appropriate location where it is
stored for future use.
Natural Vegetation and Wildlife: Natural vegetation and wildlife
exist only in the biosphere.
The narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere hydrosphere
and atmosphere is called biosphere.
In the biosphere living beings are inter-related and interdependent
on each other for survival. This life supporting system is known as
the ecosystem.
Plants provide us with timber, shelter to animals, produce oxygen,
protect soil for growing crops, act as shelter belts, give us fruits
and vegetables help in storage of underground water, etc.
Wildlife includes animals, birds, insects and aquatic life forms.
They provide us milk, meat, hides and wool, help in pollination of
flowers, acts as decomposers in ecosystem, etc.
Distribution of Natural Vegetation: The growth of vegetation
depends on temperature and moisture.
Forests, grasslands, scrubs and tundra are the major types of
vegetation of the world.
Forests are associated with areas having abundant water supply.
These areas have heavy rainfall and huge trees.
Grasslands are areas having short stunted trees and grasses grow in
the regions of moderate rainfall. As the amount of moisture
decreases the size of trees and their density reduces.
Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in dry areas of low rainfall. The
plants of this region have deep roots and leaves with thorny and
waxy surface that helps reduce loss of moisture through
transpiration.
Tundra vegetation of cold Polar Regions comprise of mosses and
lichens.
Evergreen and deciduous are the types of forests depending upon
when they shed their leaves.
Trees of evergreen forests do not shed their leaves simultaneously
in any season of the year.
Deciduous forests shed their leaves in a particular season to
conserve loss of moisture through transpiration.
Conservation of Natural Vegetation and Wildlife:Forests are our
wealth.
Plants give shelter to the animals and together they maintain the
ecosystem.
Changes of climate and human interferences can cause the loss of
natural habitats for the plants and animals.
Poaching is one of the major concerns which results in a sharp
decline in the number of particular species.
The animals are poached for collection and illegal trade of hides,
skins, nails, teeth, horns and feathers.
To protect our natural vegetation and wildlife, national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves are made.
Due to indiscriminate killings, several birds and animals have
either become extinct or are on the verge of extinction.
Awareness programmes like social forestry and Vanmahotsava
should be encouraged at the regional and community level.
It is the ethical duty of every citizen to conserve plants and
animals.
Topic: 20
Minerals and Power Resources
Minerals are naturally occurring substances that have a definite
chemical composition.
Minerals are formed in different types of geological environments,
under varying conditions.
Minerals can be identified on the basis of their physical properties
such as colour, density, hardness and chemical property such as
solubility.
Types of Minerals:On the basis of composition, minerals are
classified into metallic and non-metallic types.
Metallic, minerals contain metals in raw form.
Metals are hard substances that conduct heat and electricity and
have lustre or shine.
For example, iron ore and bauxite.
Metallic minerals are of two types: (a) Ferrous and (b) Non-
ferrous.
Ferrous minerals contain iron ore, manganese and chromites.
Non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron but may contain some
other metals like gold, silver, copper or lead.
Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. For example,
limestone, mica, gypsum, coal and petroleum.
Mining, drilling and quarrying are the three extraction methods of
minerals.
Mining is the process of taking out minerals from rocks buried
under the earth’s surface.
The process of mining includes two methods: (a) Open cast
mining, (b) Shaft mining
Deep wells are bored to take minerals out and this process is called
drilling.
In the process of quarrying, minerals that lie near the surface are
simply dug out.
Distribution of Minerals:
Minerals are found in igneous rock, metamorphic rocks and
sedimentary rocks.
Iron ore, nickel, copper minerals are found in igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
Limestone is found in sedimentary rocks.
Uses of Minerals: Some minerals which are usually hard are used
as gems for making jewellery.
Copper is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.
Silicon is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.
Silicon is used in the computer industry which is obtained from
quartz.
Aluminium is used in automobile, airplanes, bottling industry,
building and in kitchen cookware.
Conservation of Minerals:
Minerals are the non-renewable resources.
It is necessary to reduce wastage in process of mining.
Recycling of metals is the way to conserve mineral resources.
Power Resources: Power resources are of two types: (a)
Conventional Resources, (b) Non-conventional Resources
We need power resources for industry, acriculture, transport,
communication and defence.
Conventional Sources of Minerals:The energy resources which
have been in common use for a long time are known as
conventional sources.
Firewood and fossil fuels are two main conventional energy
sources.
Non-Conventional Sources of Minerals:
Non-conventional sources of energy are renewable.
Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, etc. are non-conventional
sources of energy.
Topic: 21
Geography Agriculture Economic activities
These are of three types: (i) Primary Activities, (ii) Secondary
Activities, (iii) Tertiary Activities.
Primary activities are those activities which are connected with
extraction and production of natural resources, for example,
agriculture, fishing, etc.
Secondary activities are concerned with the processing of natural
resources to manufacturing products like baking of bread, weaving
of cloth, etc.
Tertiary activities provide services like transport, trade banking,
insurance, advertising, etc.
Agriculture is a primary activity which include growing crops,
fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock.
50% of persons in the world are engaged in agricultural activity.
2/3 of India’s population is still dependent on agriculture.
Favourable topography of soil and climate are vital for agricultural
activity. The land on which the crops are grown is known as arable
land.
Farm System: Agriculture or farming is a system in which seeds,
fertilizers, machinery and labour are important inputs.
Ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding, and harvesting are some of
the operations.
The outputs from the system include crops, dairy, wool and poultry
products.
Type of Farming: Farming depends upon the geographical
conditions, demand of produce, labour and level of technology.
Subsistence farming and commercial farming are the two types of
farming.
Subsistence Farming: Subsistence farming is practices to meet the
needs of the farmer’s family.
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: In this farming, the farmer
cultivates a small pot of land using simple tools and more labour.
Rice is the main crop. Other crops include wheat, maize, pulses
and oil seeds.
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture: Primitive subsistence
agriculture includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding.
Shifiting Cultivation: In shifting cultivation, after cultivation the
soil is abandoned and the cultivator moves to a new plot. Shifting
cultivation is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
Nomadic Herding: In nomadic herding, herdsmen move from place
to place with their animals for fodder and water along defined
routes. Sheep, yak and goats are the herding animals.
Commercial Farming: In commercial farming crops are grown and
animals are reared grown and animals are reared for sale in market.
Commercial Grain Farming: In commercial grain farming crops
like wheat and maize are grown for commercial purpose. This
farming practiced in temperate grasslands of North America,
Europe and Asia.
Mixed Farming: In mixed farming, the land is used for growing
food and fodder crops and rearing livestock.
Plantation: Plantations are a type of commercial farming where
single cro of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or
cotton are grown.
Major Crops: A variety of crops or many crops are grown to meet
the requirement of the growing population. Major crops of India
are: Rice, Wheat, Millets, Maize, cotton, jute, coffee,tea.
Agriculture Development: Agricultrure Development refers to
efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the
growing demand of increasing population.
A Farm in India: A typical Indian, Munna Lal has a farmland of
about 1.5 hectares. He purchases high yielding varieties of seeds
from the market every alternate year.
A Farm in the USA: The average size of a farm in the USA is
about 250 hectares. The farmers grow corn, soyabean, wheat,
cotton and sugarbeet.

Topic: 22
Geography Industries Secondary activities
These are those activities which change raw materials into
products of more value of people.
Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with
production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of
services.
Raw Material: Industries under this are of agro-based, mineral-
based marine-based and forest-based.
Size of Industries: Size refers to the amount of capital invested,
number of people employed and the volume of production.
Industries based on size are classified into small scale and large
scale industries.
Small Scale Industries: Small scale industries manufacture
products by hand and include cottage and household industry.
These industries use lesser amount of capital and technology.
For example, Basket-weaving, pottery and other handicraft
 industries.
Large Scale Industries: Large scale industries produce large
volumes of products. The investment of capital is higher and
technology is superior.
For example, production of automobiles and heavy machinery.
Ownership: On the basis of ownership, industries can be classified
into the following sectors: (a) Private sector, (b) Public sector or
state owned, (c) Joint sector, (d) Cooperative sector.
Private Sector Industries: Private sector industries are owned and
operated by individuals or a group of individuals. For example,
Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd., Indian Oil Cooperation.
Public sector industries are owned and operated by the
government. For example, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and
Steel Authority of India Limited.
Joint Sector Industries: Joint sector industries are owned and
operated by the state and individuals or a group of individuals. For
example: Maruti Udyog Limited.
Cooperative Sector Industies: These industries are owned and
operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or
both. For example: Anand Milk Union Limited and Sudha Dairy.
Factors Affecting Location of Industries: The availability of raw
material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport and

market are the factors and market are the factor affecting the location of
industries.

Industrialization leads to development and growth of towns and

cities.
Industrial System: An industrial system consists of inputs,
processes and outputs.
Raw materials, labour and costs of land, transport, power and other
infrastructure are the inputs.
The processes include a wide range of activities that convert the
raw materials into finished products.
The result or the outputs are the end of product and income earned
from it.
Industrial Regions: Industrial regions emerge when a number of
industries locate close to each other and share the benefits of their
closeness.
Major industrial regions tend to be located in the temperate areas,
near sea ports and especially near coal-fields.
Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America,
western and Central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern Asia.
In India the industrial regions are Mumbai-Pune cluster, Banglore-
Tamil Naduregion, Hugli region, Ahmedabad-Baroda region, etc.
Distribution of Major Industries: The iron and steel industry, the
textile industry and the information technology industry are
world’s major industries.
Iron and steel industries are located in Germany, USA, China,
Japan and Russia.
Textile industries are locate in India, Hong Kong, South Korea,
Japan and Taiwan.
The Silicon valley of Central California and Bangaluru region of
India are the major hubs of information technology industry.
Iron and Steel Industry:
Iron and steel industry comprises various inputs, processes and
outputs and it is a mineral-based industry.
Inputs in this industry include raw materials such as iron ore, core
and limestone, labour, capital and other infrastructure. In
processing iron ore is converted into steel by undergoing different
stages like smelting, refining. Output results obtained is the steel.
Steel is called the backbone of modern industry as almost
everything is made of iron and steel.
In India, iron and steel industry has developed taking advantages
of raw materials, cheep labour, transport and market.
Major steel producing centres in India are-Bhilai, Durgapur,
Bumpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro and is spread over four
states-West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chattisgarh.
Information Technology (IT) Information technology industry
deals in the storage, processing and distribution of information.
The main factors guiding the location of these industries are
resource availability, cost and infrastructure.
The major hurbs of the IT industry are the Silicon Valley,
California and Benguluru in India.
Benguluru is known as ‘Silicon Plateau’.
IT hubs in metropolitian centres of India are Mumbai, New Delhi,
Hyderabad and Chennai.
Topic: 23
Human Resources
People are a nation’s greatest resource. It is people with their skills
and abilities that turn them into ‘resource’. Hence, human resource
is ultimate resource.
Healthy, educated and motivated people develop resources are per
their requirements.
Like other resources, human resources are not equally distributed
over the world.
Distribution of Population:
The pattern of population distribution refers to the way in which
people are spread across the earth surface.
The distribution of population in the world is extremely uneven.
Some areas are sparsely populated and some areas are densely
populated due to relief features climate conditions, etc.
Many more people live north of the Equator than south of the
equator and almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in the
continents of Asia and Africa.
Density of Population: The number of the people living in a unit
area of the earth’s surface is called population density.
The average density of population in the whole world is 51 person
per square km.
South Central Asia has the highest density of population followed
by East and South East Asia.
Factor Affecting Distribution of Population: People refers to live
on plains because these areas are suitable for farming,
manufacturing and service activities.
Climate: People prefer to live in moderate climate. They avoid
extreme climates that are very hot or very cold.
Soil: Fertile soil provides suitable land for agriculture. These areas
are densely populated.
Water: People prefer to live in areas where fresh water is easily
available.
Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more populated.
Social, Cultural and Economic Factors:
Areas of better housing, education, health facilities are more
densely populated.
Places with religious or cultural significance attract people.
Industrial areas provide employment opportunities. Large number
of people are
attracted to these areas.
Population Change: The change in the number of people during a
specific time is called population change.
Population change is due to changes in the number of births and
deaths and migration.
Natural growth rate refers to the difference between the birth rate
and the death rate of a country.
Pattern of Population Change:
Rates of population growth vary across the world.
The world’d total population, however, not all countries are
experiencing this growth.
Population Composition: Population composition is the structure
of the population with various aspects such as sex, age, literacy
level, health condition, occupation and income level.
The population composition of a country is described as population
pyramid, which also called an age-sex pyramid.
The total population is divided into various groups: 5-9 years, 10-
14 years.
The percentage of the total population is subdivided into males and
females, in each of those groups.
The shape of population pyramid, shows the people living in that
particular country.
The number of children (below 15 years) are shown at the bottom
and reflect the level of births. The size of the top shows the
number of aged people (above 65 years) and reflects the number of
deaths.
The population pyramid shows young dependents (aged below 15
years) and elderly dependents (aged over 65 years). The working
people are in the middle group constitute the economically active
segment.
In Japan, low birth rates make the pyramid narrow at the base.
Decreased death rates allow numbers of people to reach old age.

Topic: 24
Resources and Development
Summary :Resource Planning in India : It involves :
Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the
country.
Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate
technology, skill and institutional set up far implementing resource
development plans.
Matching the resources development plans with over all national
development plans.
Land use Pattern in India :Total geographical area of India is 3.28
million sq. km
Land use data however is available only for 93% of the total area
because theland use reporting far most of the North-East States
except Assam has not
been done fully.
Some area of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan China
have also not been surveyed.
The land under permanent pasture has also decreased.
Fallow land - left without cultivation far one or less than one
agricultural year.
Net sown area total -total area sown in an agricultural year.
More net sown area in Punjab and Haryana.
Less net sown area in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and
AndamanNicobar Islands.
National Forest Policy in India in 1952.
Waste land incl rocky, Arid and desert area and land put to other
non agricultural uses includes settlements, roads, railways,
industry etc.
Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking
appropriatemeasures to conserve and manage it.
Answer the following questions :What are the three stages of
resource planning? Describe it.
Why land use data is not available for whole country?
Why land is decreasing under permanent pastures?
What is net sown area? Which areas of India has more net sown
area?
Describe waste land.
Describe two major causes of land degradation in India?
Lesson No. 2Water Resources
Summary :Hydraulic Structure in Ancient India :
In the first century B.C. Sringaverapura near Allahabad had
sophisticated water harvesting system channeling the flood water
of the river Ganga.
During the time of Chandragupta Mauriya, dams lakes and
irrigation systemswere extensively built.
Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works have also been found
in Kalinga,
Nagarjuna Konda, Bennur, Kohlapur etc.
In 11th century, Bhopal lake, one of the larest artificial lakes of its
time was built.
In 14th century, the tank of Hauz Khas, Delhi, was constructed by
Iltutmish for supplying water of Siri Fort area.
Dam : A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs,
directs or retards the flow,often creating a reservoir, lake or
impoundment.
Classification of dams according to structure, intended purpose or
height.
Based on structure or material used, dams are classified as timber
dams, em-bankment dams or masonry dams, with several sub-
types.
According to the height dams can be categories as large dams and
major dams or alternatively as low dams, medium height dams and
high dams.
Rain Water Harvesting : In hill and mountainous regions, people
built diversion channels like the ‘guls’or ‘kuls’ of the western
Himalayas for agriculture.
Rooftop rain water harvesting was commonly practiced to store
drinking water, in Rajasthan.
In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation
channels to irrigate their fields.
In arid and semi arid regions, agricultural fields were converted
into rain fed storage structures that allowed the water to stand and
moisten the soil like the‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and ‘Johads’ in
other parts of Rajasthan.
Tankas - underground tanks ro tankas for storing drinking water.
In Bikaner, phalodi and Barmer.
The tanks could be as large as a big room.
Roof top rainwater harvesting as drinking water.
The first spell of rain was usually not collected as this would clean
the roofsand the pipes.
Rain water called as Palar Pani.
Many houses constructed underground rooms adjoining the
‘tankas’ to beatthe summer heat as it would keep the room cool
Some houses still maintain the tanks since they do not like the taste
of tap water.
In Gendathur, a remote backward village in Mysore, Karnataka,
villagers have installed, in their house hold’s roof top, rainwater
harvesting system to meet their water needs.
Topic: 25
Agriculture Summary :
Technological and Institutional reforms :
Consolidation of holdings, co-operation and abolition of zamidari,
etc. were given priority to bring about institutional reforms in the
country after independence.
Land reform was the main focus of our first five year plan.
The green revolution based on the use of package technology and
the white revolution (operation flood) were some of the strategies
initiated to improves the lot of Indian agriculture.
Development in few selected areas. In the 1980s and 1990s, a
comprehensive land development progreamme was initiated,
which includes both institutional and technological reforms.
Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire
and disease.
Establishment of Grameen Banks, cooperative societies and banks
for providing loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest.
Kissan credit cards and personal accident insurance schemes
introduced.
Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers
 were introduced on radio and T.V.
The government also announces minimum support price.
Remunerative and procurement prices for important crops to check
the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middleman.
Contribution of Agricultures to the National Economy,
Employment and Output : -

➢ Agriculture backbone of Indian Economy.

➢ Share in the gross domestic product.
➢ Providing employment.
➢ Livelihood to the population.
➢ The government of India made concerted efforts to modernize
agriculture.
➢ Establishment of Indian council of Agricultural Research,
agricultural universities.
➢ Veterinary services and animal breading centres.
➢ Horticulture development.
➢ Research and development in the field of meteorology and
weather forecast.

Answer the following Questions :

Describe the technological and institutional reforms done in
agriculture.
What is package technology?
Why government provides crop insurance to the farmers?
What is the role of agriculture in Indian economy?
How Indian agriculture may be modernised?
What is the objective behind weather forecasting far farmers on
TV. and Radio?
What is land consolidation? Why it was implemented?
Why government announces minimum support price for farmers?
Topic: 26
Minerals & Energy Resources

➢ Mode of occurrence of Mineral :

Where are these minerals found.

Minerals are usually found in “Ores”. The term ore is described as
accu-mulation of any mineral mixed with other elements, it should
have sufficient
concentration to make its extraction viable. The type of formation
or structure in which they are found determines their relative ease
of mining and cost of extraction.
Minerals Generally Occur in These forms :
In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the
cracks, crevices, faults or joints.
The smaller ocurrences are called vein and the larger are called
lodes.
They are formed when minerals in liquid / molten & gaseous forms
are forced upwards through cavities towards earth’s surface.
They cool and solidify as they rise. They include tin, copper, Zinc,
lead etc.
Sedimentary Rocks : No. of minerals occur in beds and layers.
They have been formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and
concentration.
Decomposition of Surface Rocks : Involves the removal of soluble
constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material
containing ores eg: Bauxite.
Alluvial Deposits : Occur in sands of valley floors and the base of
hills.
These are called ‘Placer deposits ‘ and are not corroded by water
eg gold, silver, tin platinum.
Major Iron Ore Belts in India :
Orissa Jharkand Belt : In Orissa high grade hematite ore is found
in Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar. In
Jharkand haematite iron ore is mined in Gua and Noamundi.
Durg - Bastar - Chandrapur belt : Lies in chattisgarh and
Maharashtra high grade hematitis are found in Bailadila range of
hills in Chatisgarh.
Bellavy Chitradurga - Chikmaglur - Tumkur Belt : In Karnataka
has large
reserves of iron ore. Kudermuch mines located in western Ghats of
Karnataka and known to be one of the largest.
Maharashtra- Goa Belt : Includes state of Goa and Ratnagir district
of Maharashtra. Although ores are not of very high quality yet they
 are efficiently exploited.
Conservation of Energy Resources :
Energy is a basic requirement for economic development. Every
sector of national economy agriculture, industry, transport,
commercial and domestic needs inputs of energy. There is an
urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy development.
India is presently one of the least energy efficient Countries in the
world. We have to adopt a caution approach for judicious use.

➢ Using public transport instead of individual.

➢ Switching of electricity when not in use.
➢ Using power saving devices.
➢ Using non conventional sources of power

Topic: 27
Manufacturing Industries

➢ Importance of Manufacturing :

Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development

in general and economic development.
Manufacturing industries helps in modernising agriculture.
It reduce heavy dependence of people on agriculture income by
providing them jobs
Helps in eradication of unemployment & poverty.
Helps in bringing down regional disparities.
Exports of manufactured goods expand trade & commerce.
Iron and Steel Industry :Iron and steel industry is the basic industry
steel is needed to manufacture a variety of engineering goods,
construction material, defence, medical, telephonic, scientific
equipment and variety of consumer goods.
Iron and steel industry is a heavy industry because all raw material
as well as finished goods are heavy and bulky entailing heavy
transportation costs. Iron ore, coking coal and lime stone are
required in 4 : 2 : 1
India is an important iron and steel producing country in the world
 yet we lag behind because.
(a)High costs and limited availability of coking coal.
(b) Lower productivity of labour.
(c)Irregular supply of energy.
(d) Poor infrastructure.
Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation :
Industries contribute significantly to India’s economic growth and
development but increase in pollution results in degradation of
environment.
4 Types of Pollution :
Air : caused by undesirable gases such as sulpher dioxide and
carbon monoxide, air borne particles such as dust, sprays, mist &
smoke.
Water Pollution : Caused by organic & inorganic industrial wastes
such as release of lead, mercury pesticides, fertilizers, synthetic
chemical, plastics, rubber, fly ash, phosphogypsum etc.
Thermal Pollution : Caused by nuclear power plants nuclear &
weapon production cause cancers birth defects & miscarriages.
Noise Pollution : Cause heaving impairment, increased heart rate
&blood pressure by making unwanted noise.
(IV) Control of Environment Degradation :

➢ Minimising the use of water by reusing recycling.

➢ Harvesting rainwater to meet water requirement.
➢ Treatment of hot water and effluents before releasing in ponds &
rivers, involves 3 steps.

Primary treatment by mechanical means.

Secondary treatment by biological process.
Tertiary treatment by biological chemical & physical processes

Topic: 28
Lifelines of National Economy
Roadways: India has one of the largest road networks in the world.
Its importance can be viewed.
Construction cost of roads is much lower.
Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating
topography.
Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slope & as such can
traverse mountains.
It is economical.
It provides door to door services.
Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways : The Govt. has launched a
major road development project linking Delhi-
Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai & Delhi by six-lane super highways.
The North-South corridors linking Srinagar [Jammu & Kashmir] &
Kanyakumari [T.N.] & East-West Corridor Connecting silcher
(Assam) & Porbander (Gujarat). The major objective of these
super highways is to reduce time & distance.
Railways :The distribution pattern of the railway network in the
country has been largely influence by physiographic, economic
and administrative factors.
The Himalyan mountains regions are unfavourable for the
construction of railway lines due to high relief sparse population &
each of economic opportunities.
The northern plains provide most favourable condition having high
population density.
Rivers also create problem for lay down of railway tracts.
Pipelines : Pipelines transport network is a new arrival on the
transportation map of India. Its initial cost is high but subsequent
running costs are minimal. It is used for transporting crude oil,
petroleum product & natural gas.
3 Important Networks :Oil field in Assam to Kanpur (U.P.), via
Guwahati, Barauni & Allahabad.
From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar. In Punjab via Viramgam,
Mathura, Delhi & Panipat.
Gas pipelines from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in UP
via Vijaypur in Madhya Pradesh.
International Trade :The exchange of goods among people; states
& countries is referred to as trade. Trade between two countries is
called International Trade.
Exports and imports are the components of trade. The balance of a
trade of a country is the difference b/w its export and import.
 When the value of exports exceeds the value of imports, it is called
favourable balance of trades.
Tourism as a Trade :Tourism has proved itself as one of the most
important. aspect of trade.
Tourism in India has grown substantially. It helps as

➢ Promotion of National Integration.

➢ Provide support to local handicrafts
➢ Provides support to cultural pursuits.
➢ Development of international understanding about our culture
and heritage.
 HISTORY
Topic:1
What, Where, How and When:
History: History is a chronological account of events as they took
place in the past.
Why should we study History:
We should study history as it tells us about our past.
It gives us understanding about our ancient culture and lifestyle.
It helps us to solve the problems of the present day world.
Time frames of History:
Historians use chronological sequence for a better understanding.
Birth of Jesus
Christ has been taken as year zero.
Any event before Christ is called Before Christ (BC) and any event
after the birth of Jesus is called Anno Domini (AD).
Timeline of history is divided into three stages – prehistory,
protohistory and history.
Where did people live:
People lived near river valleys. This was because rivers provided
water for all purposes.
Traces of life were found near Sulaiman and Kirtar hills in North
West.
Traces of life even existed along Ganga. Mahajanpadas like
Magadha, Kashi, Vajji, etc. flourished 2500 years ago.
The Himalayan mountain has acted as natural barrier between
India and Central Asia since ages.
How was the name India Derived:
Our country is called India and Bharat.
Bharat was used by the people of North India in the Sanskrit
composition Rigveda.
The word Indus traces its roots from the river Indus which is called
Sindhu in Sanskrit.
How do we know about the past:
Archaeologist and historians study several sources to tell us about
the past. There are two sources - archaeological and literary.
Archaeology: The study of human history and prehistory through
the excavation of sites and the analysis of physical remains.
Archaeologists use sources like monuments, artefacts, inscription
and coins.
Handwritten or any other written record of the past is known as a
literary source.
Literary sources include two types of literature - religious literature
and secular literature.
Why studied sources of History:
There were two groups of people who studied history. One was
called archaeologist and the other group was called historians.
Archaeologists studied remains of buildings made of stones,
bricks, paintings and sculptures.
The other group called historians were the people who studied the
past and used information found in inscriptions, seals and scripts.
Topic:2
On the Trail of the Earliest People
Human life has evolved over millions of years. In early stages,
men were hunters and food gatherers.
They hunted wild animals, fishes and gathered fruits, nuts and
seeds.
Why did the Earliest people lead a Nomadic life:
If they stayed at one place, resources like plant and animal would
finish.
Plants bear different fruits in different seasons. So, man too had to
move in search of these, as per seasons.
People had to move wherever water was available.
How do we Know about Early People:
Archaeologists have found out several tools used by hunter
gatherers.
Tools were made of stone, wood, etc.
Tools were used to cut meat, chop fruits, etc.
Wood was used to make huts and firewood.
Where did Early Man Live:
Early man lived near sources of water.
They lived in places where stones were found and people made
tools.
The place was called factory sites.
The factory sites were found near discarded blocks of stone.
These were known as habitation-cum-factory sites.
Stone Age: The period when mostly stone tools were made is
known as stone age.
It is divided into three parts:
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
Neolithic or New Stage Age
Making Stone Tools: Stone tools were made using two techniques:
stone on stone and pressure flaking.
Man Discovers Fire: Accidentally one of the biggest discoveries
made by man was fire.
Over a period of time man learnt several uses of fire.
It was used in winters to keep warm and use it in the art of cooking
food.
Early Rock Paintings: Man early caves had paintings on the walls.
These were found in M.P. and Southern U.P.
Early man’s painted and what they felt in these paintings.
They depicted men hunting, women grinding, children jumping,
etc.
The Deccan: Paleolithic sites have been found in the Deccan.
Some major sites are Chirki - Nevasa in Maharashtra.
Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and Hungsi in Karnataka:
Rivers like Godavari, Krishna and Tapti drained the region.
Large number of Paleolithic tools made from stone have been
found along the river.
Archaeologists are studying these tools carefully to understand the
life of early man.
Bones, horns and tusks of animals like elephant and wild ox have
been found.
Topic:3
From Gathering to Growing Food
The new stone age started a new era in history.
After leading a nomadic life for many years, man around 10,000
years began to lead a settled life.
The Beginning of Food Produce:
As climate of the world changed man observed several things -
areas where edible plants were found, how seeds broke off stalks,
fell on the ground and how new plants sprouted from them.
Man started cultivating crops.
The first crops to be grown were cereal and barley.
This is how by use of sickle men became food producers or
farmers.
Agriculture changed the life of man. They started leading a settled
life.
Men as Herders: Humans even began to tame or domesticate
animals like dog, horse, pig, goat, donkey, sheep, etc.
The first animal to be tamed was dog.
Animals provided milk, meat and even carried burden on their
back.
Human as Inventors of Wheel:
The revolution in early man’s life came with the invention of
wheel.
Wheel transformed man’s life.
Travelling and carrying heavy objects from one place to another
place became faster.
How was Invention of Pottery Important:
Man learnt to make clay pottery shaped by hand backed in fire.
Potter’s wheel helped them to make pots of different shapes and
sizes.
How do we know about Farmers and Herders:
Archaeologists have found many traces of life of early farmers.
Traces of farmers and herders were available through traces of
pottery, pit houses, tools, paintings and daily life.
Traces were found in Mehrgarh, Burzahom at North-Eastern parts
of India etc.
The Chalicolithic Age:
It was around 6,000 years back that man started using copper.
Tools of copper were better than that of stone.
It was also called the Copper Stone Age.
It marked an important transition from use of stones to metals.
The North-West Mehrgarh:
The earliest known civilization of the Indian subcontinent was in
Mehrgarh (now Pakistan).
It was here that man first tamed animals and reared them around
7,000 BC.
Charred grains and bones of animals were found here.
Glazed faience beads were made.
The North-East: Evidence of early settlements were found in
Manipur, Tripura, Garo Hills.
One important Neolithic site in Assam was Daojali Hading. Traces
of polished stone tools, ceramics and kitchen items were found
here.
Topic:4
In The Earliest Cities
Man’s lifestyle changed significantly after he learnt the art of using
metals.
Copper was the first metal to be used by man. It was followed by
bronze which was made by mixing tin and copper.
The earliest cities in the Indian subcontinent emerged around 4,700
years in the region drained by Indus and its tributaries in the
North-West.
The Story of Harappa: British discovered a mound while building
Railways.
Archaeologists were informed.
Harappa was the first to be discovered, it became Harappa
Civilisation.
Architectural Features:
Harappan cities were well-planned.
All houses were build of burnt bricks and were of good quality.
The most imposing construction of Indus valley was the Great
Bath at Mohenjodaro.
The Harappan settlements had small citadels. It was in citadels that
structures were built for special public puroposes.
The largest building excavated at Harappa was the Great Granary.
The most striking feature of Harappa was the well-planned
drainage system.
Life of the Harappa People:
The Harappan people used common food items like wheat and
barley. Animal bones found at Harappa include sheep, goat, pig,
etc.
Pots of fine clay were made.
Many kilns for baking bricks have been discovered.
Necklaces, armlets, finger rings and bangles were worn both by
men and women. Both men and women seemed to be fond of
ornaments.
Trade:Trading thrived in Harappa.
It suggests that long-distance trade existed.
Goods coming from outside, include copper from Rajasthan, gold
from Karnataka and precious stones from Iran and Afghanistan.
Seals of Mesopotamia have been found in Indus.
Seals of Indus Valley have been found in Mesopotamia.
Harappan Cities in Gujarat:
Two famous Harappan cities of Gujarat were Dholavira and
Lothal.
Dholavira was full of traces of fresh water and fertile soil.
Lothal was an important centre for making objects out of stone,
shell and metal.
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation:
It lasted from 2500 BC to 1500 BC.
Perhaps Indus Valley Civilisation was destroyed by earth quakes,
floods or change in the course of the Indus.
Some historians sat that the invasion of Aryans led to the decline
of Harappan civilization.
Topic:5
What Book and Burial tell us
The oldest book known all over the world is supposed to be that of
the Vedas.
They were written about 3,000 years back and are the earliest
literary source available.
The Vedas: The word, Veda means Knowledge. There are four
Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
The Rigveda is the oldest Veda. It was composed about 3,500
years ago.
The hymns have been compared by sages. These hymns were
recited and passed from one generation to another until they were
written down.
These hymns are in praise of different gods such as Indra (the god
of warrior), Agni (the god of fire), Varun (the god of sky) and
many others.
How do Historians study the Rigveda:
While studying about the past, historians examined written
sources.
They studied the Rigveda. Most of the hymns in Rigveda were in
the form of dialogues.
Historians study these dialogues to arrive at conclusions.
Rigveda: What does it tell us about Prayers and Battlles:
Most prayers in the Rigveda are for cattle, children and horses.
Horses were yoked to chariots and used in battles.
Battles aimed to capture cattle, land, pasture, water and people.
A portion of the wealth was used for performing Yajnas or
sacrifices in which offerings were put into fire, for gods including
ghee, grains and rare animals.
Political Life:The Vedas even tell us about political life of this
sage.
The head of state was called Raja.
The Raja had no capital, palaces, armies or right to collect taxes.
Occupations: Agriculture, cattle-rearing, chariot-making, pottery,
jewellary-making tanning and metal work were the main
occupations.
Dasas/Dasyus: While Aryans composed Vedas, another group of
people opposed to Vedas.
They were called Dasas or Dasyus or slaves.
Social Differences: Burials
Archaeologists assume that objects discovered with a skeleton,
probably belonged to the dead person.
In Brahmagiri, a skeleton was buried with 33 gold beads, 2 stone
beads, and one conch shell whereas other skeleton only had a pot.
This shows the difference in status, amongst the people who were
buried. Some were rich while other were poor.
Sometimes, megaliths have more than one skeleton. It indicates
that people belonging to the same family were buried at same place
though at different times.
Special burials took place at Inamgaon.
Animals were used as food.
Skeletoal studies tell us about better way of identifying dead
bodies.
Topic:6
Kingdoms Kings and Early Republic
In the later Vedic period, the tribal organization changed their
identity and gradually started shifting into a territorial identity
called Janapada or states.
These states consisted of a single tribe like Shakyas and Molas or
people from the Ganaga Valley called Aryans.
They did not incorporate people outside the Aryan pole.
There was, therefore, a strong consciousness of the pure land of the
Aryans called Aryavrata.
Janapada:
The term Janapada is a compound composed of ‘Jana’ meaning
tribe and ‘pada’
meaning foot. Its literal meaning, thus, is realm and subject
population.
Early Vedic texts reveal about several Janas or tribes of the Aryans
living in seminomadic tribal state.
In due course of time, these early Indian Iron Age Rigveda Janas
coalesced into geographically fixed Janapadas.
They were governed by rulers or rajas each having their own army
and capital.
Features of Mahajanapadas:
Each Mahajanapadas was ruled by a king.
Villagers were controlled by a village headman called Gramini.
Varna system was divided into four castes-Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Shudras.
Political Organisation:The political organization of the
mahajanpadas was organized into two forms monarchy and
republican system.
In a monarchy, king was the head of the state. Magadha was its
example.
In a republican system, state was ruled by an elected chief called
Ganpat. Mallas was its example.
Taxation:
As Mahajanapadas needed huge amount of money, they imposed
taxes.
One-sixth tax was fixed on crops; tax on crafts persons, herders,
goods bought and sold through trade.
Further hunters and gathers had to give forest produce to the raja.
Agricultural System of Mahajanapadas:
Two major changes were introduced in agriculture.
One, was the rapid use of iron ploughshares.
Second, people started transplanting paddy.
Varna System of Mahajanapadas:
Varna means group in Sanskrit.
Varna decided one’s group. It was not based on birth.
Gradually in later Vedic age, Varna system changed to caste
system.
The Brahmins imparted knowledge, Kshatriyas were rulers,
Vaishyas contributed to trade while Shudras were slaves who were
denied entry into the mainstream.
Magadha and Vajji:
Magadha in South Bihar, on the banks of river Ganga was a fertile
and industrial area
which contributed to one of the most powerful kingdoms and some
great kings like Bimbisara and Ashoka in India.
Vajji in northern part of Ganga, was a confederacy of eight clans
of whom the Videhas,
Lichchhavis and the Jnatrikas were the most popular. Vaishali was
a prosperous city under them.
Topic:7
New Questions and Ideas
By the sixth century BC, religious worship in India became
ritualistic and rigid, bound by caste rules.
It forced many thinkers to give up worldly life and meditate in
search of peace and enlightenmet.
 Such thinkers spread their teachings through the Upanishads and
two new religons:
Buddhism and Jainism popularized by Gautam Buddha and Lord
Mahavira respectively.
The Upnishads:
With expansion of trade around 600 BC, people had less time for
performance of rituals and focused on right belief.
Scholars criticized all rituals and focused on right belief.
Literally ‘Upnishad’ means approaching and sitting near the
teacher.
It became an important elaboration of Vedas. Thus its illustrations
and conclusions were called Vendata.

The Upnishads stressed on the need to create a desire for knowledge to

achieve Moksha.

The Upnishads focused on the fact the knowledge of Atman (self)

should be acquired and related with Parmatman (ultimate reality).
This philosophy was given by scholars like Yajnavalkya, Maitreyi,
Gargi, Aaitareya, etc.
Message of Lord Mahavira:
Lord Mahavira is usually regarded as the founder of Jainism.
He left his palace and meditated for many years.
He gained supreme knowledge in the thirteenth year.
He was able to control and conquer the indriyas (senses). He was
thus called Jina and his disciples were called Jains.
Mahavira Spreads his Religion:
Mahavira travelled widely in the country preaching Jainism for
thirty years.
He also received royal support.
King Bimbisara of Magadha, Pradyote ofo Avanti, helped him to
spread the religion.
Some of his famous disciples were Ananda, Surdev, etc.
Doctines of Jainism
Mahavira gave five doctrines
These include not to injure life, not to speak lie, not to steal, not to
possess property, and to vow chasity.
This could be achieved through righ faith, right knowledge and
right action.
The Jain Sangha and the Division in Jainism:
At Pawanagar, Mahavira entered into a debate with Brahmanas
and was able to impress them.
With their help he laid the foundation of the Jain Sangha.
The members of the Jain Sangha were divided into four categories:
Bhikkus, Bhikkhunis, Shraveks and Shravikas. The first two were
ascetics while the other two were householders.
The orthodox followers of Mahavira who hold Bhadrabahu in high
esteem go completely nake. They are called Digambaras.
The other sect followers of Parsvanath wear white clothes. They
are called Shvetambaras.
Topic:8
Ashoka the Emperor who gave up War
By the end of the Vedic period, the Aryan tribal settlements spread
across the Indo-Gangetic plains grew into territorial divisions like
Janapadas.
One of the most powerful Janapadas, was that of Magadha under
the Mauryas.
Rise of Magadha:
The rise of Magadha is attributed to the fertile plains along the
river Ganga.
The Haryanka, Shishunaga and Nanda dynasties helped in the
development of Magadha as a powerful state.
Around 326 BC, Greek rulaer Alexander invaded India. At that
time Magadha was ruled by Nandas.
The Nanda rulers who had humiliated Chanakya were overthrown
by Chandragupta who established the Mauryan empire in 321 BC
with his capital at Patiliputra.
Chandragupta captured Punjab, Gujarat, Afghanistan. He even
defeated Greek ruler Seleucus in 305 BC.
After rulling for 25 years, Chandragupta became a Jain ascetic and
gave his kingdom to his son Bindusara who further expanded it
southwards.
Ashoka: From a Warrior to Messenger of Peace:
Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka, the greatest Mauryan
emperor.
He undertook military campaign against Kalinga. After defeating it
he saw a pool of blood.
The sight of large scale killing moved Ashoka and he embraced
Buddhism.
He began to spread the teachings of Buddha not only in India by
even abroad.
His philosophy called ‘Dhamma’ was propagated all over. He
preached peace, tolerance, shunning violence, stopping animal
sacrifice and respect of slaves by their masters.
He sent missionaries called ‘Dhamma Mahamattas’ to Sri Lanka,
Burma and South-east Asian countries to propagate Buddhism.
Mauryan Administration:
The Central administration was headed by the king who was the
supreme judge and the law giver.
The king appointed several officials called mantris and amatyas to
assist him.
The provincial administration was headed by a governor who was
generally a Kumara or an Aryapura.
The provinces were divided into district or Janapada. It had three
important officials called Pradeshika, Rajuka and Yukta.
Military System:
The Mauryas had established a vast empire with the help of a
powerful army.
Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador wrote that soldiers were most
numerous class next to the cultivators.
The Arthashastra mentions three types of soldiers namely,
hereditary fighting class,
mercenaries willing to fight for any government which engaged
their services; and artisans.
The army consisted of 6,00,000 infantary, 30,000 horsemen, 3,000
chariots and 9,000 elephants.
The army administration was under a commander-in-chief.
There were six specialized departmens to look after the military
administration.
Further the king appointed a number of trusted secret servicemen
as spies. It helped the king to know what people thought about
him.
Achievements of Mauryas:
The agriculture was the main occupation of the Mauryas.
In addition, merchants were also found in large numbers.
Division in society was based on the different occupations of
people.
Mauryan art and architecture in the form of stupas, viharas, pillars
and rock edicts is very popular.
Megasthenes Indic and Kautilya’s Arthshastra are two valuables
sources of knowing about the Mauryas.
The state became weak politically and financially after the death of
Ashoka and started declining.
Topic:9
Vital Villages Thriving Towns
Rise of new kingdoms and towns led to an increase in agriculture
and trade.
It resulted in the growth of new towns.
Rapid Increase in Agricultural Production:
The discovery of iron tools led to rapid rise in agricultural
production.
It made it easier to bring more land under cultivation by clearing
forests.
The use of iron ploughshare made it possible to dig deep in those
areas where the soil was fertile.
It led to significant rise in agriculature production first in North
India and then in South India.
Growth of Crafts and Craftsmen:
Art and craft flourished in every village.
Each village had weavers, dyers, potters, blacksmiths, basket-
weaver, goldsmiths,
carpenters and othe rskilled craftsmen.
Silk weaving, dyeing, coin-minting, ivory-carving, cloth-making
and bead-making became the popular occupations.
Archaeological sources show exteremly fine pottery called the
Northern Black Polished Ware.
Most craftsmen organized themselves into organisations called
Shrenis.
Increase in Trade:
The rapid rise in agricultural production and crafts led to surplus
production. This surplus in villages was supplied to towns.
All this led to growth of trade.
Merchants and traders participated in both the internal and external
trade.
All trading communities were orgainsed into guilds.
Use of money gave rise to punch marked coins.
Taxes collected from trade acted as an important source of revenue
for the king,
How did People Live:
Very little information is available about the life of the people.
The main sources to know about them include stories from books,
the accounts of sailors and travellers and sculptures which show
scenes from the daily life.
The Second Urbanisation: Town and Cities:
Large-scale agricultural production, growth of crafts and increased
trade and commerce led to emergence of new towns and cities.
It led to growth of urban centres and is called the Age of Second
Urbanisation.
Some important towns of this period were Vaishali, Ujjayani,
Hastinapur, Pataliputra, Mathura, Arikamedu, Bodh Gaya,
Rajagriha and Kaveripattnam.
Functions of Towns:
Each town was famous for some particular activity.
Some towns were religious while others were administrative.
Several towns like Sopara were trading towns.
Two such famous towns were Mathura and Arikamedu.
Mathura was the second capital of Kushanas and a centre of
temples monasteries, arts and crafts. The Mathura School of Art
grew here.
Arikamedu was an important coastal trading centre, a port and a
centre for export and import. Traders from Rome came here.
Life of People of Tamil Nadu: Under the Cholas and the Pandyas:
Most people lived in villages and were farmers.
Towns were near the coast.
Trade went as far as Rome and China.
People like amusements, games and gambling.
The administration was headed by a king. There was even a
general assembly known as the Sabha.
The most popular God was Murugan (Kartikeya in North).
The Chola Kingdom was situated between the Pennar and the
Velur rivers and its centre of power was Uraiyar, a famous cotton
centre.
The Pandyha kingdom with its capital at Madurai was known for
its pearls. It is mentioned by Megasthenes and the Sangam
literature.
Topic:10
Traders Kings and Pilgrims
Around 1,000 BC when the Second Urbanization characterized
North India, the area around
Deccan Peninsula and South India saw ht eco-habitation of both
Iron Age and Megalithic Age
leading to a strong civilization.
Sangam Age:
The Iron Age laid roots of a golden period in South India from 300
BC to 300 AD, popularly known as the Sangam Age.
The rich poetry of this period reflects the glory of the Tamil
culture and society.
Tamils had good contacts and trade relations with distant lands like
Rome and Cambodia.
Sangam Literature:
The word ‘Sangam’ means assembly.
The Tamil literature reveals of three literary gatherings of poets ad
scholars around 2,200 years ago under the patronage of th Pandyan
Kings.
Of the second assembly, only the Tamil grammar ‘Tolkappiyam’
has survived. The third assembly at Madurai led to creation of over
2,000 poems together which is
called the Sangam Literature.
Southern Kingdoms:
The Sangam literature metions three Kingdoms in the Tamilakam
territory: The Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas.
The Cheras were alsop called Keralaputras and traded in spices,
cattle and turmeric.
The Cholas ruled Kaveri delta and even captured parts of Sri
Lanka.
The Pandyas centered around Madurai. Madurai was famous for its
third Tamil assembly.
Foreign Trade:
Tamilakam had extensive trade with distant lands.
Greeks text like Pliny’s periplus History also confirm these trade
relations.
The Sangam literature uses the word ‘Yavana’ for Greek and
Romans.
Historians confirm that Christianity came to South India due to
these contacts.
Trade route was through North India front Taxila to Pataliputra via
Ujjain which linked to Tamralipti seaport.
Tamil Kingdom even had trade with South and South-East regions
of Ceylon, Malaya, ,
Java, Cambodia, Sumatra, etc.
Conquerors from Distant Lands:
In North-West India, the main conquerors were Sungas, Indo-
Greeks, Parthians,
Kushanas and Shakas.
Sungas came in 185 BC, after defeating the last Mauryan rular
Brihadratha and captured Magadha. They spread Buddhism.
The Indo-Greeks or Bactrians were from Northern Afghanistan.
They captured Punjab.
The Parthians came from Central Asia and established Gandhara as
their capital.
The Kushanas were nomadic Yeuh-chi tribes of North-West China.
They defeated the Indo-Greeks, Parthians and Shakas. Their
greatest ruler was Kanishka.
Shakas came through Hindu-kush mountains and established
Ujjain as their capital.
The most famous Shaka ruler was Rudradaman.
In central India, the Satavahanas were the main rulers.
Gautamipurtra, Sri Satkarni was their most important ruler.
Trade:
Trade flourished during this period. All the kingdoms issued a
number of gold, silver and copper coins to promote trade.
Broach, Sopara and Kalyan were the important port cities.
The most important reason for development and prosperity during
the age was the Silk Route which linked India to Rome via Central
Asia.
Religion:
In India, Buddhism and Hinduism were the two main religions.
Buddhism was divided into two cults Hinayana and Mahayana.
Menander, the Indo-Greek king and Kanishka, the Kushana ruler
helped in promotion of Buddhism.
Bamiyan, one of the tallest statues of Buddha.
Hinduism was patronized by Satavahana ruler who worshipped
Vishnu, Shiva and Mother Goddess.
Emphasis was now laid on loving devotion to God called Bhakti.
Deities were kept in special homes called temples.
Bhagvad Gita became famous text during this period.
TOPIC:11
New Empires and Kingdoms
After the downfall of Mauryas, many new empires emerged. In 3rd
century AD, a new powerful kingdom called the Gupta dynasty
emerged.
The Gupta Age:
The period between 320-540 AD is known as Gupta Age.
It is also called the golden age of Indian history when rapid
development took place in the filed of art, architecture, literature,
philosophy, trade, science and agriculture.
The sources of knowing about Guptas are-archaeological and
literary sources.
Archaeological sources of Guptas include the rock-cut temples of
Ajanta, Prayaga Prashasti pillar inscription at Allahabad or by
court poet Harisena, etc.
Coins and literary sources from the other source of information.
These incljde gold and silver coins issued by Samudragupta and
other rulers and accounts of writers
like Fa-Xian. Some other sources are the works of Kalidasa,
Raguvansha, Meghadoota and Abhijnana Shakuntalam.
Rulers of Gupta Empire:
Sri Gupta is supposed to be the founder of the Gupta dynasty.
The first powerful ruler was Chandragupta I who ascended the
throne in 320 AD.
His matrimonial alliance with Lichchhavi Princess was a turning
point in the history of Gupta empire.
The next powerful ruler was his son Samudragupta whose glory
and conquest is described in the Allahabad pillar inscribed by his
court poet, Harisena.
The next powerful ruler was Chadragupta Vikaramaditya who
expanded and strengthened the Gupta empire. He occupied Saka
territories Fa-Hien visited India in his rule.
Gupta Adminitration:
The central government was headed by a king who was assisted by
the ministers.
The Gupta empire had several Desa or provinces headed by
Uparika.
The lowes level of administration was a district or a group of
villages. Each village was headed by Gramadhyksha.
Military System:
The military system was developed on scientific lives like the
Mauryas.
The Mahasenapatis played an important role in heading the
contingents of cavalry and elephants.
Several other ranks in the army called Mahasandhivigrahika also
existed.
Social Conditions:
The society was divided on the basis of four vamas.
Butchers and executioners lived in dwellings outside the city.
The brahmans received the gretest respect. The Kshatriyas were
also held in high esteem because of the power and prestige they
enjoyed.
Slavery was prevalent while joint family system continued to be a
feature of Hindu private life.
Customs of polygamy and sati also started developing.
Science and Technology:
The study of science made great progress.
Notable astronomers and mathematicians like Aryabhatta,
Varahamihira wrote their works.
Indian surgeons were well versed in dissection and plastic surgery.
Art and Architechture:
Temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Paravati were built.
Some famous temples include the Dasavtara temple at Jhansi,
Vishnu temple at Tigawa, Shiva temple at Bhumara etc.
Paintings:
The art of painting reached its height.
The Buddhist caves in Ajanta and Bagh caves at Gwalior belong to
this period and represent the excellent of Indian art.
Trade and Religion:
India had brisk trade relations with west through Persian Gulf and
Red Sea.
Some famous ports were Kalyani, Broach, Kambay and
Tamralipti.
Ship building industry was at its peak.
Buddhism and Hinduism flourished under the Guptas.
Donations were made for maintenance of temples.
Sanskrit language reached its perfection.
After 468 AD Gupta empire started declining and collapsed by the
middle of 6th century AD.
Harshavardhana:
After the decline of Gupta empire, many small kingdoms arose.
One such kingdom was near Thaneshwara ruled by Vardhana
dynasty.
The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Harshavardhana.
Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang praised his rule.
Harshavardhana had tried to cross river Narmada but was defeated
by the Chalukyan king, Pulakeshin II.
He was a follower of Shiva and his administration was efficient.
Southern Kingdoms: After the decline of Satavahanas, Chalukyas
and Pallavas came into prominence.
Chalukyas extended from South of Vindhyas till river Krishna.
Their most powerful king was Pulakshin II. They had good trade
relations with Arabia, Iran and South-East Asia.
Far deep in the South was the Kingdom of Pallavas who rule in
Kanchi. The greatest ruler was Mahendravarman I.
The South Indian kingdoms had an efficient administration.
Assemblies were also frequenct in Southern kingdom. These
included Ur or a village assembly and nagaram which was an
organization of merchants.

Topic:12
Books, Buildings and Paintings
The Indian civilization is the oldest in the world. It has work on
literature, art and architecture.
Literature: World of Books:
In the field of language and literature Indian heritage is
unparalleled.
It is not easy to find such a literature in any other language as to
match with the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, the
Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the Bhagavadgita.
Further there were the Jatakas, the Tripitakas along with Dipvamsa
and Mahavamsa
of the Buddhists, Angas texts of the Jains and the Sangam
literature of the Tamils.
The Puranas: The Puranas were written as early as 1st century BC.
The Puranas are eighteen in number and have five divisions.
The fifth division is historically important as it contains the
traditions about the dynasties of rulers of ancient India.
The important Puranas are the Vayu, Vishnu and the Matsaya
Purana. They give us valuable information about the history of
ancient India.
The Epics:
The two epic - the Ramayana and the Mahabharata - give account
of the social, political and religious features of the people of the
Epic Age.
Mahabharata talks about the war between Kaurvas and Pandavas.
It was written by a sage, Vyas. The Bhagavadgita, an important
source of knowledge is included in the Mahabharata.
The Ramayana written by Valmiki is about Rama who had to fight
against Ravana to get his wife back.
The Buddhist and Jain Text:
Tripitakas and Jatakas of Buddhism as well as Angas of Jainism
give us vital Information.
They help in reconstructing the history of ancient India.
Sanskrit Works:
Good quality of Sanskrit literature was produced from the second
century AD to fifth century AD, especially under the Gupta rulers.
Kalidasa, the greates poet and dramatist enriched the Sanskrit
language. His plays Abhijnana Shakuntalam and Vikramorvashi
are gems of Sanskrit literature.
Some other major authors were Vishkhadatta who wrote Mudra
Rakshasa, Amar Singh who wrote Amarkosha and Shudraka who
wrote Mrichhakatikam.
Panchatantra, was also written during this period.
Tamil Works:
Tamil is the oldest language among the spoken literary languages
of South India.
The earliest trace of Tamil literature is found in Sangam literature.
The famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram was composed by
llango about 1,800 years ago.
Another Tamil epic the Manimekali was written by Sattanar about
1,400 years ago.
Art and Architechture:
Ancient India achieved wonderful heigths in fine arts.
In the field of architecture, the Great Bath and Sanchi Stupa, in the
field of sculpture
Ashoka pillars, in the field of metallurgy the Iron Pillar at
Mehrauli are some great examples.
The buildings built thousands of years ago were made of brick and
stone. There durability is proved by the fact that they still stand
tall.
Paintings and Science:
The paintings of this area are foundin Ajanta and Ellora.
They were made of colours derived from plants and animals and
were vivid in description.
In science, Aryabhatta talked about day and night, eclipses and
used circumference of a circle which is as accurate as the formula
used in modern times.
Topic: 13
Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years.
The maps by Arab geographer al-Idrisi (1154) and French
cartographer (1720) give a large sketch of Indian subcontinent as
known as earlier times.
Science of cartography however different in the two time periods.
New and Old Terminologies: Historical records exist in a variety
of languages.
The term Hindustan was coined by Minhaj-i-Siraj, a chronicler
who wrote in Persian for areas around Punjab, Haryana, and the
lands between Ganga and Yamuna.
Baur used Hindustan to describe the subcontinent along with its
flora and fauna.
Fourteenth-century poet Amir Khusrau used the word Hind.
In Hindi the term ‘pardesi’ was used to describe an alien. In
Persian it was called ‘ajnabi’.
Historians and their Sources: The information about medieval
period is derived from two sources: Archaeological and Literary.
Archaeological sources available to us include monuments,
temples, coins, tombs, ornaments and paintings.
Since paper became available in good quantum, a lot of written
accounts in the form of chronicles, autobiographies, farmaans and
accounts of foreign travelers is available from this period in
Persian and Arabic. New Social and Political Group:
The study of the thousand years between 700 and 1750 is a huge
challenge to historian largely because of the scale and variety of
developments that occurred over the period.
It was a period of great mobility. One such group of people ws
Rajaputra. Other group of warriors were Marathas, Sikhs, Jats,
Ahoms and Kayasthas.
Throughout the period there was a gradual clearing of forests and
the extension of agriculture. Challenges in their habitat forced
many forest-dwellers to migrate.
As society became more differentiated people were grouped into
jatis or sub-castes and ranked on the basis of their backgrounds and
their occupations.
Ranks were not fixed permanently, and varied according to the
power, influence and resources controlled by the members of the
jati.
Regions and Empires:
Large states like those of the Cholas, Tughluqs, or Mughals
encompassed many regions.
A Sanskrit prashsti that praises Delhi Sultan Balban tells that he
was ruler of a vast empire that stretched from Bengal in the east to
Ghazni in Afghanistan in the west and included all of the South
India (Dravida).
There were considerable conflicts between various states.
When the Mughal empire declined in the 18th century, it led to the
re-emergence of regional states.
Old and New Religions:
Religion was often closely associated with the social and economic
organization of local communities.
It was during the period that important changes occurred in
religion.
Knowledge of Sanskrit helped Brahmins to earn respect.
Islam was patronized by many rulers.
Historical Periods:
The British historians divided the history of India into three
periods: Hindu, Muslim and British.
Most historians look to economic and socal factors to characterize
the major elements of different moments of the past.
The life of hunter-gatherers, early farmers and early empires was
called early societies.
The growth of imperial state formations, development of Hinduism
and Islam as major religions and the arrival of European trading
companies was called medieval period.
The last era was called modernity which carried a sense of material
progress and intellectual development.
Topic: 14
New Kings and Kingdoms
Several major ruling dynasties emerged in different parts of the
subcontinent between the seventh and twelfth centuries.
The Emergence of New Dynasties:
By the 7th century there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in
different regions of the subcontinent.
Existing kings often acknowledged them as their samantas or
subordinates.
They were expected to bring gifts for their kings or overlords and
provide them with military support.
Some such kingdoms were those of Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas,
Gurjaras-Pratiharas, etc.
Administration in the Kingdoms:
The kings at apex adopted big titles like Maharaja-adhiraja.
The kings shared power with their samantas, and with association
of peasants, traders and Brahmanas.
Resources were obtained from the producers who were persuaded
to surrender part of what they produced.
These resources were used to finance the king’s establishment and
construct temples and forts.
Functionaries for collecting revenue were recruited from
influential families.
Prashastis ans Land Grants:
Prashashtis tells us how rulers wanted to depict themselves as
valiant and victorious warriors.
The kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These
were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who
received the land.
Warfare for Wealth:
For centuries Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties
fought for control over Kannauj.
The long drawn conflict is known as tripartite struggle as three
parties were involved in it.
Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni raided the subcontinent almost every
year and looted temples like Somnath, Gujarat, Mahmud entrusted
a scholar named al-Biruni to write an account of the subcontinent.
Other kings engaed in warfare were Chauhans, who ruled over the
region around Delhi and Ajmer.
Chauhans were engaged in conflict with Chalukyas of Gujarat and
the Gahadavalas of western UP.
Prithviraj III was a popular Chauhan ruler who defeated Afghan
ruler Ghori in 1191, but lost to him in 1192.
The Cholas:
Cholas were from a small family of Uraiyur. The successors of
Vijayalaya conquered neighbouring regions and the kingdom grew
in size and power.
Rajaraja I was considered the most powerful Chola ruler and
expanded control over most of these areas.
His son Rajendra I, conquered Sri Lanka and countries of
Southeast Asia.
Cholas were big temple builders. Two famous temples were in
Thanjavur and Gangai kondacholapuram.
Agriculture was well developed along with various methods of
irrigation.
Association of traders known as nagarams also performed
administrative functions in town.
Inscriptions also mention about sabha. The sabha had separate
committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc.
Topic: 15
The Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD - 1526 AD)
Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara
Rajputs.
Chuahans (also called Chahamanas) of Ajmer.
The transformation of Delhi into a capital that controlled vast area
of the subcontinent started with the foundation of the Delhi
Sultanate in the beginning of the 13th century.
Rulers of Delhi:
Tomars: Early 12th century 1165
Chauhans: 1165-1192 Prithviraj Chauhan: 1175-1192
Slave Dynasty: 1206-1290
Khalji Dynasty: 1290-1320
Tughlaq Dynasty: 1320-1414
Sayyid Dynasty: 1414-1451
Lodi Dynastry: 1451-1526
Finding out about the Delhi Sultans:
Inscriptions coins and architecture provide a lot of information.
Further valuable sources are ‘histories’, tarikh (singular)/tawarikh
(plural), written in
Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.
The authors of tawarikh were learned men; secretaries
administrators, poets and courtiers who both recounted events and
advised rulers on governance, emphasizing the importance of just
rule.
From Garrison Town to Empire:
In the early 13th century the control of the Delhi Sultans rarely
went beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons.
Delhi’s authority was challenged by Mongols and by governors
who rebelled at any sign of the Sultan’s weakness.
The expansion of Delhi Sultanate took place under the reign of
Balban, Alaudding Khalji and Muhammad Tughlaq.
Administration and Consolidation:
To have reliable governors the early Delhi Sultans, especially
Iltutmish’ favoured their special slaves purchased for military
service called ‘bandagan’ in Persian.
The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to use bandagan and also
raised people of humble birth, who were their clients, to high
positions like governors and generals.
The Khaljis and Tughluqs appointed military commanders as
governors of territories of varying sizes.
These lands were called iqta and their holder was called muqti or
iqtadar. The duty of muqtis was to lead military campaigns and
maintain law and order in their iqtas.
In return, muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments as
salary. They also paid their paid their soldiers from this revenue.
Under Alaudding Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq accountants
were appointed to check the amount collected by the muqtis.
As Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of the cities under their
control, they forced the samants and the rich landlords to accept
their authority.
The attack of Mongols under Genghis Khan forced Khaljis and
Tughluqs to mobilise a large standing army in Delhi.
The Sultanate in Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries:
The Tughluq, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and
Agra until 1526.
By then Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the entire
South India had Independent rulers who had established
flourishing states and prosperous capitals.
New ruling dynasties like the Afghans and Rajputs also arose
during the period.
In 1526, Mughals established their empire, though for a brief
period Suri Dynasty ruled in Delhi (1540-1555). This
administration became the role model for Akbar, the Mughal
Emperor.

Topic: 16
The Mughal Empire :
In the middle age, a very powerful empire was that of the Mughals.
From the latter half of the 16th century they expanded their
kingdom from Agra and Delhi, until in the 17th century.
they controlled nearly all of the subcontinent.
The legacy left by them stands unparalleled.
Who were the Mughals: The Mughals were descendants of two
great lineages of rulers.
From their mother’s side they were descendants of Genghis Khan
and from the father’s side they were the descendants of Timur.
Mughal Military Campaigns:
Babur, the first Mughal emperor, captured Delhi in 1526 by
defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat.
Humayun captured Delhi back in 1555.
Akbar captured Chittor (1568), Ranthambor (1569), Gujarat,
Bihar, Bengal, Kashmir,
Berar Khandesh, etc. (1585-1605).
Jahangir took campaign against Sikhs and Ahoms.
Shah Jahan captured Ahmadnagar and Bijapur.
Aurangzeb waged a long battle in the Deccan.
Mughal Traditions of Succession:
The Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture, where
the eldest son inherited his father’s estate.
They followed the custom of coparcenary inheritance, or a division
of the inheritance amongst all the sons.
Mughal Relations with othe Rulers:
The Mughal rulers campaigned constantly against rulers who
refused to accept their authority.
But as the Mughals became powerful many other rulers also joined
them voluntarily.
The Rajputs served the Mughals voluntarily.
Mughals gave mansab and jagirs which helped them to expand
their territories.
The main source of income available to Mughal rulers was tax on
the produce of the peasantry.
Akbar’s Policies:
Akbar’s works are found in the book Akbarnama written by Abul
Fazal.
Akbar divided his kingdom into provices called subas governed by
a Subedar.
Akbar’s nobles commanded large armies and had access to large
amounts of revenue.
While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri, he started discussion on
religion with the ulemas,
Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics and
Zoroastrians.
The discussions tooks place in the ibadat khana.
Akbar realized that religious scholars emphasized rituals and
dogmas were often bigots.
It led Akbar to the idea of Sulh-ikul or universal peace.
Shah Jahan and Jhangir also followed this principle.
The Mughals empire in the 17th Century and After:
The administrative and military efficiency of the Mughal Empire
led to great economic and commercial prosperity.
The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spent a great deal of
their income on salaries and goods.
The wealthier peasantry and artisanal groups, the merchants and
bankers profited in this economic world.
Primary producers, however, lived in poverty.
By 18th century several provinces started declaring independence
though they continued to regard Mughals as their masters.
Topic:17
Rulers and Buildings
Between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries, kings and their
officers built two kinds of structures; the first were structures of
grandlose while second were structures for public activity.
Engineering Skills and Construction:
Monuments provide an insight into the technologies used for
construction.
Between the seventh and tenth centuries architects started adding
more rooms, doors and windows to buildings.
Roofs, doors and windows were made by placing a horizontal
beam across two vertical columns, a style of architecture called
‘trabeate’ or ‘corbelled’.
Two technological and stylistic developments from twelfth century
are ‘arcuate architectural’ form and use of limestone mixed with
stonechips that led to faster construction.
Buildings, Temples, Mosques and Tanks:
Temples and mosques were beautifully constructed because they
were places of worship and meant to demonstrate the power,
wealth and devotion of the patron.
The largest temples, were all constructed by kings. The other,
lesser deities in the temples were gods and goddesses of the allies
and subordinates of the ruler.
Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of
God but Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the
‘Shadow of God’.
As each new dynasty came to power, kings wanted to emphasise
their moral right to be rulers.
It was widely believed that the rule of a just king would be an age
of plenty when the heavens would not withhold rain.
Why were Temples Destroyed:
Since kings built temples to demonstrate their devotion to God and
their power and wealth, they attacked and targeted these buildings
when they attached one another’s kingdoms.
In the early 11th century, when the Chola king Rajendra I built a
Shiva temple in his capital he filled it with prized statues seized
from defeated rulers.
Gardens, Tombs and Forts:
Under the Mughals, architecture became more complex. Babur,
Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan were personally
interested in literature, art and architecture.
Babur got gardens called Chahar bagh (four gardens) built in
Kabul. They were further constructed in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi
by Akbar, Jahanir and Shah Jahan.
Akbar’s architecture is visible in his father, Humayun’s tomb.
Under Shah Jahan, Mughal architecture were fused together in a
grand harmonious synthesis.
The ceremonial halls of public and private audience (diwan-i-khas;
diwan-i-am) were carefully planned.
Shah Jahan adapted the Chahar Bagh technique in the layout of the
Taj Mahal, the grandest architectural accomplishment of his reign.
Region and Empire:
As construction activity increased between the eight and
eighteenth centuries there was also a considerable sharing of ideas
across regions.
In Vijayanagar, for example, the elephant stables of the rulers were
strongly influenced by the style of architecture found in the
adjoining Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
In Vrindavan, near Mathura, temples were contructed in
architectural styles that were very similar to the Mughal palaces in
Fatehpur Sikri.
The creation of large empires that brought different regions under
their rule; this helped in this cross-fertilisation of artistic forms and
architectural styles.
The Mughals adopted the ‘Bangla dome’ in their architechture.
Topic: 18
Town, Traders and Craftspersons
One of the most interesting aspects of the medieval period in the
17th century was the growth of urbanization.
The Arabs, Turkish and Afghans settled in many parts of the
country leading to the evolution of towns and cities.
Sources of Knowing About the History of this Period:
The sources of history are travelers’ accounts.
Monserrate, Flitch, Thomas Roe, Domingo Paes, Nicolo Conti and
Abdul Razzaq Samarqandi wrote aboute the life of this period.
Court Towns:
Some of the important court towns were Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur
Sikri and Delhi.
Fatehpur Sikri was the new capital founded by Akbar.
Delhi was known as Shahjahanabad and was buit by Shah Jahan in
1639.
Port and Trading Towns:
Some towns developed as ports due to their proximity to the sea
shore.
Some major ports were Cambay, Surat, Broach, Masulipatanam,
Nagapattinam, etc.
Administrative Towns:
Some towns were capital citites. They were centres of
administration.
Thanjavur and Uraiyur were important centres.
Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres:
Temples towns were important centres of urbanization and led to
development of cities, economy and society.
Pilgrims gave huge donaitons to temples. This wealth was used by
temple authorities to finance their trade and banking.
Some such important towns were Somnath, Madurai, Trupati,
Vrindavan, Ajmer, etc.
How important was Bronze:
Bronze is an alloy compound of copper and tin.
Chola rulers used this metal to make statues through the ‘lost wax’
technique.
Emergence of Small Towns:
From the 8th century onwards, small towns emerged in India. They
emerged from large villages. They had a ‘mandapika’ where
villagers sold their produce.
Likewise, there were market streets, called ‘hatta’, full of shops.
Many villagers came to buy local articles and sell products like
horses, camphor, saffron betel nut, spices, salt, etc.
Normally a Samanta was appointed who fortified the palaces and
gave the right to collect taxes from traders, artisans, etc.
Name of Traders: China:
Some other important traders were the Chettiars, Marwari,
Banjaras, Baniyas, Muslim Bohras, etc.
Crafts in Towns:
Craft work was famous by the name of Bidri in the region.
The goldsmith, bronzesmith, blacksmith, masons and carpenters
were together called as the ‘Panchalas’ or ‘Vishwakarma’.
Some other crafts were cotton cleaning, spinning and dyeing.
Many kinds of traders existed.
Trader travelled in caravans by forming guilds.
Topic: 19
Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities
During the Medieval Age, several social, economic and political
development took place.
The Indian society was divided on the basis varnas. During the
medieval period, gap between the rich and poor increased.
There were, however, several communities which did not follow
rules laid down by the Brahmins. Thesej included the tribes,
nomads and settled communities.
Tribal Societies:
Tribes are people who do not follow norms laid down by society.
Most of the tribes were dependant on agriculture. Others were
herders or hunter gatherers.
Tribers were even nomadic and moved from one place to another.
There were even clashes between tribes and powerful caste-based
societies.
Contemporary historians and travelers from medieval India hardly
give any information about the tribes.
Some of the powerful tribes were Khokhar tribe in Punjab;
Langahs and Arghuns in Multan; Gaddis in the Himalayas; Kolis
and Berads of Gujarat; Gonds of Chhattisgarh, Bhil tribe in Central
India, etc.
Pastoral Nomads:
The pastoral nomads moved from one place to another with their
herd of animals.
They survived on milk products and exchanged ghee, wool, etc.
with farmers for grains, cloth, utensils, etc.
The most important trader nomads were Banjaras. Their caravan
was called ‘tanda’.
Sultan Alauddin Khalji used Banjaras to move grain to the city
markets.
Pastoral tribes thus, basically reared and sold animals like horses
and cattle to the prosperous people.
Changes in Caste Structure of India:
In the fields of trade and agriculture, there emerged multi-caste
population in many villages on account of the spread of Islam.
Sufi and Bhakti movement preached equality between different
castes and religious groups.
Inter-caste marriages started between Rajputs and Muslim nobles.
With the growth of economy, new jatis and varnas emerged.
Many tribes became part of ruling changes.
The Gonds: Gonds were sometimes referred to by their tribal
dialect, Gondi. They practice shifting cultivation.
The Gonds rose when Delhi Sultanate declined.
The Gond kingdom is Gondwana in southeastern Madhya Pradesh
was found in the 15th century.
Ahoms: The Ahom tribe is traced to some tribes living in south-
east Asia who had travelled over land through the forests of
Assam.
The religion and culture of Assam is a fusion of the local traditions
and of migrant tribes.
The Ahoms belonged to a warrior class and built roads and
irrigation system even before establishing their rule.
The Ahoms formed the new kingdom by suppressing the older
political system of Bhuiyans.

Topic:20
Devotional Paths to the Divine
Intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various kinds of
Bhakti and Sufi movements that have evolved since the 8th
century.
The Idea of a Supreme God:
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups of people
worshipped their own Gods and Goddesses. As people were
brought together through the growth of towns,
trade and empires, new ideas began to develop.
The idea that all human-beings are not equal at birth gained ground
during this period.
The idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from
bondage through devotion or bhakti emerged.
Gods and goddesses worshipped in different areas came to be
identified with Shiva, Vishnu or Durga.
A New kind of Bhakti in South India- Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of new religious
movement, led by Nayanars (saint devoted to Shiva) and Alvars
(saints devoted to Vishnu).
They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and
preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
The Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing
exquisite poems of praise of the deities enshrined in the village
they visited, and set them to music.
The Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many
of the shrines.
Philosophy and Bhakti:
Shankara, a philosopher, of Kerala advocated Advaita or the
doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul of the Supreme God
which is the ultimate reality.
Ramanuja of Tamil Nadu advocated that the best means of
attaining salavation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
Basavanna’s Virashaivism:
Virashaivism movement was initiated by Basavanna and his
companions Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi in Karnataka in
mid-12 century.
They argued strongly for equality of all human beings, opposed
Brahmanical ideas on caste and treatment of women.
The Saints of Maharashtra:
Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, Tukaram, Sakkubal and the family
of Chokhamela focused on the bhakti of Vitthala (a form of
Vishnu).
Some of these belonged to lower castes. They rejected all forms of
ritualism, outward display of piety and social differences based on
birth.
Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yodis:
A number of religious groups that emerged during this period
criticized the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and
the social order, using simple, logical arguments.
Among them were the Nathpanthis, Siddhcharas and Yogis.
Islam and Sufism:
Islam propagated monotheism or submission to one God.
It also rejected idol worship. Muslim scholars developed a holy
law called Shariat.
The Sufis rejected the elaborate codes of behaviour demanded by
Muslim religious scholars.
The sought unioun with God, as a lover seeks his beloved with a
disregard for the world.
Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and
Sadi.
The Chisti silsila was among the most influential orders. A long
line of teachers included Khwaja Murinuddin Chisti of Ajmer,
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki of Delhi, Baba
Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and
Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
New Religious Developments in North India:
The period after the 13th century saw a new wave of bhakti
movement in North India.
This wave was led by scholars like Tulsida, Surdas, Kabir and
Baba Guru Nanak.
This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravida and
Mirabai. Mirabai was devoted to Lord Krishna.
A unique feature of most of these saints is that their works were
composed in regional languages and could be sung.
Kabir: Kabir ridiculed idol worship and believed in one formless
Supreme God with devotion as the path of salvation.
Baba Guru Nanak: Guru Nanak emphasized on the importance of
one God and nam-japna, kirti-karna and vand-chhakna.
The number of Baba Guru Nanak’s followers increased through
the 16th century under his successors.
Topic: 21
The Making of Regional Cultures:
It is quite common for us to identify a region with its language.
Thus, we call a person Bengali or Kannada on the basis of the
language which he speaks.
Every region is identified with a certain distinct type of food,
clothing, poetry, dance, painting and music.
Language is quite closely connected to a region.
The Chera empire of Mahodayapuram, which was established in
9th century in the south-western part of Kerala introduced the
Malayalam language.
Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cuit
In several regions, regional cultures developed around religious
traditions.
The local people made a wooden image of the deity which,
originally a local God, came to be identified with Vishnu.
Temple became a centre of pilgrimage.
The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism:
In the 19th century, the Rajasthan of today was called Rajputana
by the British.
There are many groups who call themselves Rajputs in Northern
and Central India.
Prithviraj Chauhan was one such ruler.
Women had been given a heroic image since they committed sati
or self-immolation.
Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak
The heroic traditions of various regions also helped in the
evolution of dance in several regions.
One such dance was Kathak, which was evolved in Northern India.
The Kathaks initially were a caste of story-tellers in North Indian
temples.
The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays known
as rasalila.
It integrated folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-
tellers.
Paintings for Patrons: The Traditions of Miniatures
During this period, one more tradition which deserves our attention
is the miniature painting. Miniatures are small sized paintings done
in water colour on cloth or paper.
Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan hired highly skilled painters to
illustrate their manuscripts in the Kitab Khana containing their
accounts and poetry.
When Mughal empire started declining, new artistic tastes
developed in the regional court of Deccan and Rajput rulers.
One bold style of miniature painting was called Basohli.
One of the most popular paintings of Himalayas region was
Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari.
he Kangra artists by mid-18th century infused a new life into
miniature painting.
The Growth of a Regional Language: Bengal
Regional language is the language which a person speaks in a
region.
It is generally assumed that Bengali language is spoken by people
of Bengal.
Bengali originated from Sanskrit but later on developed its own
identity and literature.
Pirs and Temples: From 16th century, people migrated in large
numbers from less fertile western Bengal to the forested and
marshy of south-eastern Bengal.
With Mughal control over Bengal, the capital shifted to Dhaka.
Officials received land grants Mosques were set up.
The early settlers got help from teachers called Pirs. They included
saints or Sufis and prominent religious personalities.
Fish as Food: Bengalis had fish as food. Popularity of fish made
even Bengal Brahmins eat fish.
Topic: 22
Eighteenth-Century: Political Formations
By 1765, British had captured major chunks of Indian terriory in
eastern India.
With Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, many new states emerged in
India.
The Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals
After reaching its zenith, Mughal empire started declining under
Emperor Aurangzeb.
This was because of Aurangzeb’s military and religious policy
which depleted the financial resources of the Mughals.
Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial administration
broke down. It became difficult to check governors and
mansabdars.
In the midst of this crisis, Nadir Shah’s invasion in 1739 and
invasions of Afghan ruler Ahmed Shah Abdali between 1748-
1761, weakened the Mughal empire.
The nobility was divided into two major groups Iranis and Turanis.
For a long time, the later Mughal emperors were puppets in the
hands of either one or the other of these two powerful groups.
Emergence of New States:
With the decline of Mughal authority, the governors consolidated
their authority.
Broadly speaking, the stateswere divided into three overlapping
groups; old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad
States which enjoyed consideration
independence like Watan Jagirs and several Rajput principalities,
and the last group included states like Marathas, Sikhs and the Jats.
The Old Mughal Provinces:
These included the states of Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.
Hyderabad state was founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah. The
state was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas.
Awadh was founded by Saddat Khan. The rich alluvial plains
allowed development of the region.
Bengal was founded by Murshid Quli Khan. He commanded
revenue administration of the state. Under Alivardi Khan the state
became prosperous.
The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs:
Many Rajput Kings, particularly those belonging to Amber and
Jodhpur had served under the Mughals with distinction. They got
considerable autonomy and thus were called watan jagir.
Maratha expansion after 1740s put restriction on growth of Rajput
expansion.
Seizing Independence;
The Sikhs:
The Sikh arose as a power under Guru Gobind Singh who inspired
the Khalsa with the belief that their destiny was to rule.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh reunited the Sikhs as a powerful group and
established his capital at Lahore in 1799.
The Marathas: The Maratha kingdom rose under Shivaji. After
Shivaji’s death Peshwa, led the
Maratha empire to its zenith.
Marathas collected huge revenue from taxes of chuth and
Sardshmukhi in the entire kingdom.
Maratha chiefs included Peshwa, Sindhia, Gaekwad and Bhonsle.
Their territory touched near Delhi in its peak stages.
The Jats: The Jats under Churaman controlled territories towards
the west of Delhi.
They were prosperous agriculturalists.
Under Suraj Mal, the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong
state.
Jats even built a garden palace at Dig.
Topic: 23

How, When and Where

How important are dates:
History is synonymous with dates.
We compare the past with present.
We continue to associate history with a string of dates.
Which Dates: Selection of date depends on the story of past.
Focusing on a particular set of events is important.
How do we Periodise: James Mill divided the Indian history into
three periods: Hindu, Muslim and British.
British rule represented all the forces of progress and civilization.
What is colonial: Colonial refers to the British rule.
British rule brought about changes in values and tastes, customs
and practices.
How do we know Administration:
One important source is the official records of the British
administration.
The British felt all important documents and letters needed to be
preserved.
Specialized institutions like archives and museums were
established to preserve important records.
Surveys become important:
The practice of surveying became common under colonial
administration.’
Surveys like botanical zoological, archaeological, anthropological
and forest surveys were in the list of British administration.
What do Official Records not Tell:
The official records do not tell about the needs of people of India.
Many official records hide the truth and only show one aspect of
the event.
Chapter – 02 History
From Trade to Territory
Auranangzeb was the last powerful Mughal ruler.
East India Company comes East:
In 1600 royal charter granted to East India Company granting the
sole right to trade with the East.
East India Company bought goods at a cheap price and sold them
at higher price in Europe.
Cotton and silk produced in India had a big market in Europe.
Pepper, cloves, cardamom and cinnamon were in great demand.
East India Company begins Trade in Bengal:
In 1651, the first English factory was set up on the banks of river
Hugli.
Aurangzeb issued a farman granting the company the right to trade
duty free.
The company tried to press for more concessions and manipulate
existing privileges.
How did Trade Lead to Battles:
After the death of Aurangzeb, the Bengal Nawabs asserted their
power and autonomy.
The Nawabs of Bengal refused to grant the company concessions.
The Battle of Plassey:
On 23rd June 1757, Battle of Plassey was fought and was the first
major victory of English in India.
Alivardi Khan died in 1756 and Sirajuddaulah became the Nawab
of Bengal.
In 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against
Sirajuddulah at Plassey.
Main reason for defeat of the Nawab was that the forces led by Mir
Jafar, one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, never fought the battle.
Mir Jafar was promised by Clive to be made Nawab after crushing
Sirajuddaulah.
The Battle of Buxar:
After the defeat at Plassey, Sirajuddaulah was assassinated and Mir
Jafar was made the Nawab.
Mir Jafar was just a puppet in the hands of Britishers.
In 1764, the battle of Buxar was fought between Britishers and Mir
Qasim.
In 1765 Mir Jafar died.
In 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the company as the Diwan
of the provinces of Bengal.
Company Officals became ‘Nabobs’:
In 1764, Robert Clive was appointed Governor of Bengal.
‘Nabobs’-an anglicized version of the Indian word Nawab.
Company Rule Expands:
The process of annexation of Indian states by the East India
Company from 1757 to 1857 brought forth some key aspects like
the company rarely launched a direct military attack on as
unknown territory.
After battle of Buxar, the company appointed residents in Indian
states.
The company forced the states into a ‘subsidiary alliance’.
The Nawab of Awadh and the Nizam of Hyderabad were forced to
cede territories and accept the subsidiary alliances.
Tipu Sultan-‘The Tiger of Mysore’:
Tipu Sultan was the son of Haidar Ali, ruler of Mysore.
Tipu Sultan ruled Mysore from 1782 to 1799.
Four wars were fought between Britishers and Mysore and were
known as the Anglo-Mysore wars(1767-1769, 1780-84, 1790-92
and 1799).
In 1799, the Britishers won the battle of Seringapatam against
Mysore.
Tipu Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam.
Topic: 24
Ruling the Country side
On 12 August 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India
Company as the Diwan of Bengal.
As Diwan, the company became the chief financial administrator
of the territory under its control.
The company came to colonise the countryside, organize revenue
resources, redefine the rights of people and produce the crops it
wanted.
Revenue for the Company:
The company had become the Diwan, but still saw itself primarily
as a trader.
Before 1865, the company purchased goods in India by importing
gold and silver from Britain. Now the revenue collected in Bengal
could financial the purchase of goods for exports.
Bengal economy was facing a deep crisis.
In 1770, a terrible famine killed ten million people in Bengal.
The Need to Improve Agriculture:
The company introduced Permanent Settlement in 1793.
The Rajas and taluqdars were recognized as Zamindars.
The Problem:
Numerous zamindaris were sold off at auctions organized by the
company, as anyone
who failed to pay the revenue lost his zamindari.
The zamindars were not interested in the important in the
improvement of land.
A New System is Devised:
By the early nineteenth century many of the company officials
were convinced that the system of revenue had to be changed
again.
An Englishman, Holt Machenzie devised the new system which
came into effect in 1822. This system was called as Mahalwari
settlement.
The Munro System: In the Britain territories in the south, a new
system was devised which was known as ryotwar or ryotwari.
Ryotwari was intiated by Captain Alexander Read and developed
by Thomas Munro.
This system was extended all over south India.
All was Not Well:
As they desired to increase the income from land, revenue officials
fixed too high a revenue demand.
As peasants were unable to pay, ryots filed the countryside, and
villages became deserted in many regions.
Crops for Europe:
By the late eighteenth century the company was trying to expand
the cultivation of opium ad indigo.
The Britishers forced cultivators to produce jute, tea, sugarcane,
wheat, cotton and rice in various parts of India.
Does Colour have a History:
The rich blue colour was commonly called as Indigoo.
The blue dye used in the Morris prints in nineteenth-century
Britain was manufactured from Indigo plants cultivated in India.
India was the biggest supplier of indigo in the world in 19th
century.
Why the Demand for Indian Indigo:
By the thirteenth century Indian Indigo was being used by cloth
manufacturers in Italy, France and Britain to dye cloth.
Indigo produce a rich blue colour whereas the dye from woad
another plant was pale and dull.
Indigo plantations came up in many parts of North America.
Britain turns to India:
The company in India expanded the area under the indigo
cultivation to meet the rising demand for indigo in Europe.
As the indigo trade grew commercial agents and officials of the
company began investing in indigo production.
How was Indigo Cultivated:
There were two main system of Indigo cultivation: Nij and Ryoti.
In Nij system, the planter produced indigo in lands that he directly
controlled.
The Problem with Nij Cultivation:
The planters found difficulty to expand the area under Nij
cultivation.
Nij cultivation on a large scale required many ploughs and
bullocks, investing on purchase and maintenance of ploughs was a
big problem. The planters were reluctant to expand the area under
Nij cultivation.
Indigo on the Land of Ryots:
In Ryoti system, the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract an
agreement (satta).
Those who signed the contract got cash advances from planters at
low rates of interest to produce indigo.
The peasants got very low price for the indigo they produced and
the cycle of loans never ended.
After an indigo harvest the land could not be sown with rice which
the peasants preferred.
The ‘Blue Rebellion’ and after:
In March 1859 thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow
indigo.
As the rebellion spread, ryots refused to pay rents to the planters
and attacked indigo factories.
Ryots swore they would no longer take advances to sow indigo nor
be bullied by the planters’ lathiyals.
The government set up the indigo commission to enquire into the
system of indigo production.
It declared that indigo cultivation was not profitable for ryots.
Hence they could refuse to produce indigo in future.
Afte the revolt, indigo production collapsed in Bengal. The
planters now shifted their operations to Bihar.
Topic: 25
Tribals, Dikus and The Vision of A Golden Age
In mid-1870s Birsa was born in a family of Mundas-a tribal group
that lived in Chhotanagpur.
The tribes had customs and rituals that were very different from
those laid down by Brahmas.
How did Tribal Groups Live: By the 19th century, tribal people in
different parts of India were involved in a variety of activities.
Some were Jhum Cultivators:
Jhum cultivation that is shifting cultivation was done on small
patches of land, mostly in forests.
The cultivators cut the treetops to allow sunlight to reach ground,
and burnt the vegetation on the land to clear it for cultivation.
Once the crop was ready and harvested they moved to another field
and left that field fallow for several years.
Some were Hunters and Gatherers:
In many regions tribal groups lived by hunting animals and
gathering forest produce.
In Khonds were hunters and gatherers living in the forests of
Orrisa.
They used many forest shrubs and herbs for medicinal purpose,
and sold forest produce in the local markets.
Baigas of central India reluctant to do work for other.
Tribal groups often needed to buy and sell in order to be able to get
the goods that were not produced within the locality. This led to
their dependence on traders and moneylenders.
Some Herded Animals:
Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals and
gathering forest produce.
They were pastoralists who moved with their herds of cattle or
sheep according to the seasons.
The Van Gujjars of Punjab hills and Labadis of Andhra Pradesh
were cattle herders.
The Gaddis of Kulu were shepherds and the Bakarwals of Kashmir
reared goats.
Some took to Settled Cultivation:
Many tribal groups had begun to settle down instead of moving
from one place to another. They began to use the plough and
gradually got rights over the land they
lived on.
British officials saw settled tribal groups like the Gonds and
Santhals as more civilized than hunter-gatherers or shifting
cultivators.
How did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal Lives: The lives of tribal
groups changed during British rule.
What Happened to Tribal Chiefs:
Before the arrival of the British, tribal chiefs enjoyed economic
power, and had the right to administer and control their territories.
Under British rule, the functions and powers of the tribal chiefs
changed as they were allowed to keep their land titles but were
forced to follow laws made by British officials in India.
What Happened to the Shifting Cultivators:
The British were uncomfortable with the shifting cultivators.
The British wanted to regular revenue source for the state and
introduced land settlements.
The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not vey successful.
After facing widespread protests, the British had to allow them the
right to carry on shifting cultivation in some parts of the forest.
Forests Laws and Their Impact:
The life of tribal groups was directly connected to the forest.
The British extended their control over all forests and declared
them as state property.
Reserved forests were for producing timber which the British
wanted.
Many tribal groups reacted against the colonial forest laws and
rose in an open rebellion.
The Problem with Trade:
During the 19th century, tribal groups found the traders and
moneylenders were coming into forests and offering cash loans to
the tribal people and asking them to work for wages.
Indian silk was in demand in European markets during the 18th
century.
The Santhals of Hazaribagh reared cocoons. The traders spent in
their agaents who gave loans to the tribal people and collected the
cocoons.
The coconuts were exported to Burdwan or Gaya where they were
sold at five times the price.
The Search for Work:
The plight of the tribals who had to go far away from their homes
in search of work was even worse.
The tribals were recruited in large numbers to work for tea
plantations and coal mines through contractors low wages, and
prevented them from returning home.
A Closer Look: The tribal groups rebelled in different of the
country against the changes in laws, restrictions on their practices,
the new taxes they had to pay and exploitation by
traders and moneylenders.
Birsa Munda: A movement began under the leadership of Birsa
Munda.
The British officials were worried as the political aim of the Birsa
movement was to drive out missionaries, moneylenders, Hindu
landlords and the government and set up a Munda Raj with Birsa
at its head.
In 1895, Birsa Munda was arrested.
He was released in 1897 and he toured the villages to gather
support. He urged people to destroy ‘Ravana’ (dikus and the
European), and establish a kingdom under his leadership.
In 1900 Birsa died of cholera and the movement faded out.
Topic: 26
When People Rebel: 1857 and After
Policies and the People: The policies of the East India Company
affected different people like kings, queens, peasants, landlords,
tribals and soldiers in different ways.
Nawabs Lose their Power:
Since the mid-eighteenth century. Nawabs and rajas had seen their
power erode.
They lost their authority and honour.
In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh. The
company began to plan to bring an end to the Mughal dynasty.
The Peasants and the Sepoys:
In the countryside peasants and zamindars resented the high taxes
and the rigid methods of revenue collection.
The Indian sepoys in the employement of the company were
unhappy about their pay, allowances and conditions of service.
Moreover, some new rules violated their religious sensibilities and
beliefs.
Responses to Reforms:
The British believed that Indian society had to be reformed.
Laws were passed to stop the practice of Sati and to encourage the
remarriage of windows.
Through the Eyes of the People: The English were determined to
wipe out the religions of Hindu and the Muslims.
A Mutiny Becomes a Popular Rebellion:
In May 1857, a massive rebellion started against the company’s
very presence in India.
Sepoys multinied in several places beginning from Meerut and a
large number of people from different sections of society rose up
in rebellion.
From Meerut to Delhi:
On 29 March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a yound soldier was hanged to
death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore.
The response of the other Indian soldiers in Meerut was quite
extraordinary, they marched to the jail to Meerut and released the
imprisoned sepoys.
The sepoys rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi.
The regiments stationed in Delhi also rose up in rebellion and
many British officers were killed, arms and ammunition seized,
buildings set on fire.
The soldiers forcibly met Bahadur Shah Zafar and proclaimed him
as their leader.
The Rebellion Spreads:
After the British were routed from Delhi there was no uprising for
almost a week.
Then a spurt of mutinies began.
Regiment after Regiment mutinied and took off to join other troops
at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow.
In this rebel Nana Saheb of Kanpur, Birjis Qadr of Lucknow and
his mother Begum
Hazrat Mahal, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi took as active part in
organizing the uprising against the British. Rani Avantibai Lodhi
of Ramgarh raised and led the army against the British who had
taken over the administration of her state.
The company Fights Back:
Unnerved by the scale of the upheaval, the company decided to
repress the revolt with all its might.
Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces in September 1857.
The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court
and sentenced to life imprisonment. He along his wife was spent to
prison in Rangoon.
People continued to resist and battle the British. The British had to
fight for two years to suppress the massive forces of popular
rebellion.
Aftermath:
Some important changes were introduced by the British after they
regained control by the end of 1859. The British Parliament passed
a new Act 1858 and transferred the
power of the East India Company to the British crown in order to
ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs.
All ruling chiefs of the country were allowed to pass on their
kingdoms to their heirs, including the adopted sons.
Chapter – 06 History
Colonialism and the City: The Story of an Imperial Capital
What Happened to Cities Under Colonial Rule:
In most part of the Western world modern cities emerged with
industrialization.
In the late 18th century, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras rose in
importance as Presidency cities.
De-urbanisation took place in many cities in 19th century and
those cities were Machipatnam, Surat and Seringapatam.
How many ‘Delhis’ before New Delhi:
Delhi has been the capital for more than a 1,000 years, although
with some gaps.
Shah Jahan built the most splendid capital of all, Shahjahanabad
had begun in 1639.
During Shah Jahan’s time Delhi was an important centre of Sufi
culture.
There were sharp divisions between the rich and the poor.
The Makign of New Delhi: In 1803, the British gained control of
Delhi after defeating the Marathas and the modern Delhi
developed after 1911 when it became the capital of British
India.
Demolishing a Past:
In Delhi especially in the first half of the 19th century, the British
lived along with the wealthier Indians in the Walled city.
The British learned to enjoy Urdu Persian culture and poetry and
participated in local festivals.
The British wanted Delhi to forget its Mughal past. The areas
around the Fort were completely cleared of gardens, pavilions and
mosques.
In 1870s the Western walls of Shahjahanabad were broken to
establish the railway and to allow the city to expand beyond the
walls.
Planning a New Capital:
After the revolt of 1857, many spectacular events were held there.
In 1877, Viceroy Lytton organized a Durbar to acknowledge
Queen Victoria as the Empress of India.
In 1911, when King George V was crowned in England, a Durbar
was held in Delhi to celebrate the occasion and the decision was
taken to shift the capital of India from Calcutta to Delhi.
Edward Lutyens and Herbert Baker-architects were called on to
desing New Delhi and its buildings
Life in the Time of Partition:
The partition of India in 1947 led to a massive transfer of
populations on both sides of the new border.
Days after Indian Independence and partition, fierce rioting began.
Over two-thirds of the Delhi muslims migrated almost 44,000
homes were abandoned.
Partitions changed the lives and occupations of new migrants.
The large migration from Punjab changed the social milieu of
Delhi.
Inside the Old City:
The excellent system of water supply and drainage was neglected
in the 19th century.
The system of wells also broke down and channels to remove
household waste were damaged.
At the end of 19th century the Shahjahani drains were closed; a
new system of open surface drains was introduced.
The Decline of Havelis:
The Mughal aristocracy in the 17th and 18th centuries lived in
grand mansions called havelis.
Havelis had large walled compounds with mansions, courtyards
and fountains and many families housed in it.
Many of the Mughal amirs were unable to maintain these havelies
under the conditions of British. As a result havelis began to be
subdivided and sold.
The Municipality:
The census of 1931 revealed that the walled city area was crowded
with as many as 90 persons per acre, while New Delhi had only
about three persons per acre.
The poor conditions in the walled city, did not stop it from
expanding.
In 1888 and extension scheme called the Lahore Gate
improvement Scheme was planned by Robert Clarke for the
Walled city residents.
The Delhi Improvement Trust was set up in 1936, and it build
areas like Darya Ganj South for wealthy Indians.
Chapter – 07 History
Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners
The crafts and industries of India during British rule focused on
two industries-textiles and iron and steel.
The industrialization of Britain had a close connection with the
conquest and colonization of India.
With the growth of industrial production, British industrialists
began to see India as a vast market for their industrial products,
and over the years, manufactured goods from Britain began
flooding India.
Indian Textiles and the World Market:
Around 1750, India was the world’s largest producer of cotton
textiles.
Indian textile was renowned both for its fine quality and exquisite
craftsmanship.
From the 16th century European traders began buying Indian
textiles for sale in Europe.
Words tell us Histories:
Indian textiles were famous in western markets under different
western markets under different names such as ‘Muslin’ and
‘Calico’ (derived from Calicut).
Printed cotton cloths called chintz (derived from chhint) and
bandanna (derived from ‘bandhna’ or tie and dye) were the pieces
ordered in bulk.
Indian Textiles in European Markets:
In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation banning the
use of printed cotton textiles-chintz in England.
Indian designs were imitated and printed in England on white
Muslin or plain unbleached Indian cloth.
Spinning Jenny was invented by John Kaye in 1764.
The invention of the steam engine by Richard Arkwright in 1786
revolutionised cotton textile weaving.
Who were the Weavers:
Weavers belonged to communities that specialized in weaving.
Handloom weaving and the occupations associated with it
provided livelihood for millions of Indians.
The Decline of Indian Textiles:
The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile
producers in India in many ways.
By the beginning of the 19th century, English-made cotton textiles
successfully ousted
Indian goods from their traditional markets in Africa, America and
Europe.
English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods.
By the 1830s British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets.
Thousands of rural women who made a living by spinning cotton
thread were rendered jobless.
During the National movement, Mahatma Gandhi urged people to
boycott imported textiles and use handspun and hand woven cloth,
Khadi became a symbol of nationalism.
Cotton Mills Come up:
In 1854, the first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill
in Bombay.
By 1900, over 84 mills started operating in Bombay.
The first major spurt in the development of cotton factory
production in India, was during the first World War when textile
imports from Britain declined and Indian
factories were called upon to produce cloth for military supplies.
The Sword of Tipu Sultan and Wootz Steel:
The quality of the sword came from a special type of high carbon
steel called Wootz
which was produced all over South India.
Indian Wootz steel making fascinated European scientists.
The Wootz steel making process which was widely known in
South-India, was completely lost by the mid-nineteenth century.
The swords and armour making industry died with the conquest of
India by the British and imports of iron and steel from England
displaced the iron and steel produced by craftpeople in India.
Abondoned Furnaces in Villages:
Production of Wootz steel required a highly specialized technique
of refining iron.
By the late 19th century the craft of iron smelting was in decline.
Many people gave up their craft and looked for other means of
livelihood.
By the early 20th century, the artisans producing iron and steel
faced a new competitions.
Iron and Steel Factories:
In 1904, Charles Weld, an American geologist and Dorabji Tata,
the eldest son of Jamsetji Tata set up a modern iron and steel plant
in India.
The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) came up in 1912 and
began producing steel.
After 2 years of TISCO, in 1914 the First World War broke out, so
imports of British Steel into India declined and the Indian
Railways turned to TISCO for supply of rails.
Overtime TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the
British empire.
Topic: 27
Civilising the ‘Native’ Educating the Nation
British rule affected Rajas and Nawabs, peasants and tribals.
British felt that they had a cultural mission, they had to ‘civilise the
natives’, change their customs and values.
How the British saw Education-The Tradition of Orientation:
In 1783, William Jones a linguist, ws appointed as a junior judge at
the Supreme Court that the company had set up.
William Jones started studying ancient Indians texte on law,
philosophy, religion, politics, morality, arithmetic, medicine and
other sciences.
Englishmen like Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed
were busy discovering the ancient Indian heritage, mastering
Indian languages and translating Sanskrit and Persian works into
English.
A Madras was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of
Arabic, Persian and Islamic law.
In 1791, the Hindu College was established in Benaras to
encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts that would be useful
for the administration of the country.
‘Grave Errors of the East’:
In early 19th century many British officials began to criticize the
Orientalist version of learning.
James Mill was one of those who attacked the Orientalists.
According to him, the aim of education ought to be teach what was
useful and practical. So, Indians should be made familiar with the
scientific and technical advances that the West had made, rather
than with the poetry and sacred literature of
the Orient.
Thomas Babington Macaulay, another critic of Orientalists, saw
India as an uncivilized country that needed to be civilized.
Macaulay emphasized the need to teach the English language.
Following Macaulay’s minute, the English Education Act of 1835
was introduced.
A decision was taken to make English the medium of instruction
for higher education and to stop the promotion of Oriental
institutions.
Education for Commerce:
In 1854, Wood’s Despatch, an educational dispatch, was sent to
India. Outlining the educational policy that was to be followed in
India. It emphasized on the practical benefits of the system of
European learning.
Wood’s Despatch argued that European learning would improve
the moral character of Indians and make them truthful and honest
and thus supply the company with civil
servants who could be trusted and depended upon.
What happened to the Local Schools:
In the 1830s William Adam, a Scottish missionary toured the
district of Bengal and Bihar and was given charge by the company.
To give report on the progress of education in vernacular schools.
Adam found that the system of education was flexible and local
schools were known as pathshalas.
There were no fixed fee, no printed books, no separate school
building, no benches or chairs, no blackboards, no system of
separate classes, no roll-call registers, no annual examinations and
no regular time-table.
Teaching process was oral and the guru decided what to teach , in
accordance with the needs of the students.
New Routines, New Rules:After 1854 the company decided to
improve the system of vernacular education by introducing order
within the system, imposing routines, establishing rules, ensuring
regular inspections.
Company appointed a number of government pundits each in
charge of looking after four to five schools.
Teaching was now to be based on textbooks and learning was to be
tested through a system of annual examination.
Those Pathshalas which accepted the new rules were supported
through government grants.
The Agenda for a National Education:
Some Indians impressed with the development in Europe felt that
western education
would help to modernize India.
Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore reacted against western
education.
English Educaiton has enslaved us.
Mahatma Gandhi urged that colonial education create a sense of
inferiority in the minds of Indians. It was sinful and it enslaved
Indians, it cast an evil spell on them.
Mahatma Gandhi wanted an education that could help Indians to
recover their sense or dignity and self-respect.
According to Mahatma Gandhi, Indian languages ought to be
medium of teaching and the means to develop a person’s mind and
soul.
Tagore’s ‘Abode of Peace’:
Rabindranath Tagore stated Shantiniketan in 1901.
According to him, creative learning be encouraged only within a
natural environment and hence set up his school 100 kilometres
away from Calcutta in a rural setting.
He emphasized the need to teach Science and technology at
Shantiniketan along with art, music and dance.
Topic: 28
Women, Caste and Reform
About two hundred years ago things were very difficult in our
society. There were so many restrictions imposed on women.
Widows were praised and called ‘satis’ meaning ‘virtous’ if they
chose to by burning themselves on the funeral pyres of their
husbands.
People were also divided along lines of caste. Brahmins and
Kshatriyas considered themselves in upper caste, after them traders
and moneylenders referred to as Vaishyas and the lower caste were
Shudras and included peasants, artisans, weavers and potter.
Working Towards Change:
In early 19th century things changed because of the development
of new forms of communication.
Social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy founded Brahmo
Samaj in Calcutta.
He wanted to spread the knowledge of western education and bring
about freedom and equality for women.
Changing the Lives of Widows:
Raja Rammohan Roy began a campaign agains the practice of sati.
Many British officials criticized Indian traditions and customs.
They supported him and in 1829, sati was banned.
Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar was one of the most famous reformers
who suggested widow remarriage. In 1856, British officials passed
the law permitting widow remarriage.
Swami Dyanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in 1875, and
also supported widow marriage.
Girls begin Going to School:
Many reformers felt that to improve the condition of women,
educating the girls was necessary.
Many reformers in Bombay and Vidyasagar in Calcutta set up
schools for girls.
In aristocratic Muslim families in North India, women learnt to
read the Koran in Arabic. They were taught by women who came
home to teach.
Women write about Women:
Muslim women like Begums of Bhopal promoted education
among women and founded a primary school for girls at Aligarh.
Begum Rockeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim
girls in Patna and Calcutta.
Indian women began to enter universities by 1880s. Some of them
trained to be doctors and teachers.
Pandita Ramabal was a great scholar of Sanskrit, wrote a book
about the miserable lives of upper-class Hindu women.
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose gave their support to
demands for greater equality and freedom for women.
Caste dn Social Reform:
Social reformers criticized caste inequalities. Paramhans Mandali
was founded in 1840 in Bombay to work for the abolition of caste.
Christians missionaries began setting up schools for the tribal
groups and ‘lower’ caste children.
Demands for Equality and Justice:
By the second half of the 19th century people from within the
‘lower’ castes began organizing movements against caste
discrimination and demanded social equality and justice.
The Satnami movement in Central India was founded by Ghasidas
who came from a low caste.
In eastern Bengal, Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect worked among
low caste Chandala
cultivators. Haridas questioned Brahmanical texts that supported
the caste system. Gulamgiri:
Jyotirao Phule born in 1827 was known as one of the ‘low-caste’
leaders.
He attacked the Brahmans claim that they were superior to other,
since they are Aryans.
According to Phule, the ‘upper’ caste had no right to their land and
power, the land belonged to indigenous people who were called as
low castes.
Phule proposed that Shudras and Ati Shudras should unite to
challenge caste discrimination.
The Satyashodhak Samaj was founded by Phule to propagate caste
equality.
In 20th century, the movement for caste reform was continued by
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker.
Who Could enter Temples:
Ambedkar was born into a Mahar family. As a child he
experienced what caste prejudice meant in everyday life.
In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple entry movement. His aim was
to make everyone see the power of caste prejudices within the
society.
The Non-Brahman Movement:
The Non-Brahman Movement in the early 20th century was
initiated by non-Brahman castes that had acquired access to
education wealth and influence. They challenged
Brahmanical claims to power.
E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, known as Periyar was from middle-
class family.
Periyar founded the Self Respect Movement.
He inspired the untouchables and asked them to free themselves
from all religions in order to achieve social equality.
Periyar was an outspoken critic of Hindu scriptures.
The forceful speeches, writings and movements of lowe caste
leaders led to rethink and self-criticism among upper caste
nationalist leaders.
Topic: 29
The Changing World of Visual Arts
Colonial rule introduced several now art forms, styles, materials
and techniques which were creatively adapted by Indian artists for
local patrons and markets, in both elite and and popular circles.
The changes were seen primarily on paintings and print making.
New Forms of Imperial Art:
In 18th century a stream of European artists came to India along
with the British traders and rulers.
The artists brought with them new styles and new conventions of
paintings. They began producing pictures which helped shape
western perceptions of India.
Oil painting was also introduced in India by the European artists. It
enabled artists to produce images that looked real.
Paintings were based on varied subjects. However, the European
artists’ common intention was to emphasise the superiority of
Britain, its culture, its people and its power.
Looking for the Picturesque:
Picturesque landscape painting, that depicted India as quaint land,
to be explored by travelling British artists, was one of the popular
imperial traditions.
The most famous artists of this tradition were Thomas Daniell and
his nephew William Daniell.
They produced paintings of newly acquired British territories.
In some of the images they showed the British rule bringing moder
civilization to India, in others images depicting buildings
reminding the glory of past and decaying ancient civilization.
One of the image shows the modernizing influence of British rule,
by emphasizing a picture of dramatic change.
Portraits of Authority:
Portrait painting was another tradition of art that became popular
in colonial India.
The rich and powerful people, both Indian and British, were very
fond of self portraits.
In colonial India, portraits were life size images that looked lifelike
and real.
The art of making portraits is known as ‘portraiture’ that served as
an ideal means of displaying the lavish lifestyles, wealth and status
generated by British in India.
European artists like Johann Zoffany visited India in search of
profitable commissions.
He was born in Germany, migrated to England and came in India
and stayed for five years.
He depicted the British as superior and imperious, flaunting their
clothes, standing regally or sitting arrogantly and living a life of
luxury while Indians were portrayed occupying a shadowy
background in his paintings.
Many Indian Nawabs got their portraits painted by European
painters.
In late 19th century, mechanical printing presses were set up in
different parts of India, which helped in producing larger number
of printings.
Calcutta Art Studio was set up in late 19th century in Calcutta and
produced lifelike images of eminent Bengali personalities as well
as mythological pictures.
With the spread of nationalism in the early 20th century, the studio
produced popular prints with elements of nationalism. Some of
them have Bharat Mata appearing as a goddess carrying the
national flag or nationalist heroes sacrificing their head to Bharat
Mata.
The Search for a National Art:
The impact of religions, culture and the spirit of nationalism on art
was strongly visible by the end of the 19th century.
Many painters tried to develop a style that could be considered
both modern and Indian.
The Art of Raja Ravi Varma:
Raja Ravi Varma was one of the first artists who tried to
intermingle modern and national style.
Raja Ravi Varma belonged to the family of the Maharaja of
Travancore in Kerala.
He mastered the Western art of oil painting and realistic life study
but painted themes from Indian mythology.
He mainly painted scenes from the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata.
Raja Ravi Varma set up a picture production team and printing
press on the outskirts of Bombay.
A Different Vision of National Art:
A new group of nationalist artists in Bengal gathered around
Rabindranath Tagore, the nephew of Rabindranath Tagore.
They opposed the art of Rabi Varma as imitative of western style
and declared that western and modern art could not be used to
depict the nation’s ancient myths and legends.
He wanted to revive and turned for inspiration to medieval Indian
traditions of miniature painting and the ancient art of mural
paintings in the Ajanta Caves.
He received inspiration from Rajput style of paintings.
His art was influenced by the Japanese paintings that can be seen
in some of the paintings.
Topic: 30
The Making of the National Movement: 1870s-1947
The Emergence of Nationalism:
India was the people of India and all the people irrespective of
class, colour, caste, creed, language or gender are Indians.
The awareness of being Indian and that its resources and systems
were meant for all of them led to see the trace nature and role of
British in India.
The political associations came into being in the 1870s and 1880s.
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and many such associations functioned in
specific parts of country their goals were stated as the goals of all
the people of India.
They worked with the idea that the people should be sovereign – a
modern consciousness and a key feature of nationalism.
The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing Indians from
possessing arms.
The Vernacular Act which allowed the government to confiscate
the assets of newspapers including their printing presses if the
newpapers published anything that was found ‘objectionable’.
In 1883 Lord Ripon’s Law Member, Sir Courtenay llbert
introduced a bill called llbert Bill.
The bill provided for the trail of British or European persons by
Indians, and sought equality between British and Indian judges in
the country.
The bill caused widespread agitation among the Whites who
strongl opposed the bill and forced the government to withdraw it.
The Indian National Congress was established in 1885. It included
72 delegates from different parts of the country which included
leaders like DadaBhai Naoroji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath
Bannerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer,
Pherozeshah Mehta and Badruddin Tyabji.
A Nation in the Making:
In the first twenty years Congress was ‘moderate’ in its objectives
and methods.
A greater voice for Indians in the government and in
administration was their demand.
It demanded the separation of judiciary from the executive, the
repeal of Arms Act and freedom of speech and expression.
It also demanded the separation of judiciary from the executive,
the repeal of Arms
Act and freedom of speech and expression.
The early Congress raised a number of economic issues. It
declared that British rule had led to poverty and famines, increase
in land revenue had impoverished peasants and Zamindars and
there was food shortage because of exports and grains to Europe.
Freedom is Our Birth Right:
In Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab, leaders such as Bipin Chandra
Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai popularly known as
‘Lal, Bal, Pal’, strongly criticized the policies of the colonial
government.
They demanded ‘Swaraj’. Tilak declared, ‘Freedom is my birth
right and I shall have it’.
In 1905, Viceroy Curzon announced the partition of the biggest
province British of India, Bengal which included Bihar and parts
of Orrisa.
The partition of Bengal infuriated people all over India. Both, the
moderates and the radicals protested the partition.
Large public meetings and demonstrations were organized and this
led to be birth of Swadeshi Movement.
The Growth of Mass Nationalism:
After 1919 the struggle against Britain rule gradually became a
mass movement, involving peasants, tribals, students and women
in large numbers and factory workers.
The first World War broke out in 1914 and altered the economic
and political situation in India
India was dragged into the war and this led to a huge rise in
defence expenditure of the government of India.
Increased military expenditure and the demands for war supplies
led to a sharp rise in prices which create great difficulties for the
common people.
The war lead the British to expand their army. The government
forced the villages in India to send their soldiers for an alien cause.
The Advent of Mahatma Gandhi:
Mahatma Gandhi was born on 2nd October 1869 at Porbandar in
Gujarat.
He studied law in England and went to South Africa to practice
law and stayed there for 20 years.
He emerged as a mass leader of India.
In South Africa, Gandhiji struggle for the Indians in non-violent
marches against racist restrictions and had earned great respect and
popularity both at national and
international level.
Mahatma Gandhi spent his initial years in India travelling
throughout the country, understanding the people, their needs and
the overall situation.
Gandhiji launched local movements in Champaran, Kheda and
Ahmedabad in which he received success.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha:
In 1919, the government passe the Rowlatt Act and empowered the
provincial governments to search any place and arrest any person
whom it suspected without a warrant.
Gandhiji launched a Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act which
curbed the fundamental rights such as the freedom of expression
and strengthened police powers.
Mahatma Gandhi and Mohammad Ali Jinnah criticized the act as
‘devilish’ and tyrannical.
In April 1919, a nation-wide hartal was launched and government
used brutal measures to suppress them. The Jallianwala Bagh
massacre inflicted by General Dyer
in Amritsar on Baisakhi day was a part of this repression.
Khilafat Agitation and the Non-Cooperation Movement:
In 1920, the British imposed a harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan
or Khalifa and he was deprived of his political powers and
authority.
The Khilafat Movement was launched by Mohammad Ali and
Shaukat Ali who wished to initated a full-fledged Non-
Cooperation Movement against the British under the
leadership of Gandhiji and demanded Swaraj.
In 1921-22, the Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum,
Thousands of students left government controlled schools and
colleges. Many lawyers such as Moti
Lal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and Asaf Ali gave up
their practices.
British titles were surrendered and legislatures boycotted. People
lit public bonfires of foreign cloth.
People’s Initiatives:
In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organized non-violent
campaigns against the high revenue demand of the British.
In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were
picketed.
In Bengal, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance gave enormous
communal unity and strength to the national movement.
In Punjab, thhe Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove
corrupt mahants supported by the British from their gurudwaras.
The People’s Mahatma:
People thought of Gandhiji as a kind of messiah, as someone who
could help them to overcome their misery and poverty.
Gandhiji wished to build class unity, not class conflict, still
peasants could imagine that he could help them in their fight
against zamindars and agricultural labourers believed he would
provide them land.
The Happenings of 1922-29:
In February 1922 a crowd of peasants set fire to a police station in
Chauri Chaura, Gandhiji called off the Non-Cooperation
Movement.
Chittranjan Dass and Motilal Nehru argued that the party should
fight elections to the councils and enter them in order to influence
government policies.
Civil disobedience Movement was launched in 1930 under the
leadership of Gandhiji.
The formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the
Communist Party of India were the two important development of
the mid-1920s.
The Congress resolved to fight for ‘Purna Swaraj’ in 1929 under
the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru and 26 January 1930 was
observed as ‘Independence Day’ all over the country.
The March to Dandi:
In 1930, Gandhiji started the march to break the Salt Law.
According to this law the state had a monopoly on the manufacture
and sale of salt.
Gandhiji and his followers marched from Sabarmati Ashram to the
coastal town of Dandi where they broke the Salt law by gathering
natural salt found on the sea-shore are boiling sea water to produce
salt.
The combined struggles of the Indian people bore fruit when the
Government of India
Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy and the government
announced election to the provincial legislature in 1937.
The Second World War broke out in September 1939. The
Congress leaders were ready to support the British war effort. But
in return they wanted that India be granted Independence after the
war. The British refused to concede the demand and the Congress
ministers resigned in protest.
Quit India and Later:
Mahatma Gandhi decided to initiate a new phase of movement
against the British in the middle of the Second World War which
was Quit India Movement.
The first response of the British was severe repression and the end
of 1943 over
90,000 people were arrested, and around 1,000 killed in police
firing.
Towards Independence and Partition:
In 1940, the Muslim League had moved a resolution demanding
‘Independent States’ for Muslims in the north-western and eastern
areas of the country.
The provincial elections of 1937 seemed to have convinced the
League that Muslims were a minority, and they would always have
to play second fiddle in any democratic structure.
The Congress’s rejection of the League’s desire to form a joint
Congress-League
government in the United Provinces in 1937 also annoyed the
League.
In 1945, after the end of the war, the British opened negotiations
between the Congress, the League and themselves for the
Independence of India. The talks failed because the league
accelerated the demand for Pakistan.
In Marc 1946 the British cabinet sent a three-member mission to
Delhi to examine this demand. 16 August 1946 was declared as the
‘Direct Action Day’ by the league.
On 3 June 1947, the Partition Plan was announced and Pakistan
came into existence.
The joy of our country’s Independence from British rule came
mixed with the pain and violence of Partition.
Topic: 31
India After Independence
After Independence, India faced a series of very great challenges.
The problems of refugees and of the princely states had to be
addressed immediately.
The new nation had to adopt a political system that would best
serve the hopes and expectations of its population.
India’s population in 1947 was large and was divided. Division
between high castes and low castes, between majority Hindu
community and Indians who practiced other faiths could be seen.
Famers and peasants were dependent on the monsoon for their
survival.
A constitution is Written:
The meetings of ‘Constituent Assembly’ were held in New Delhi
and representatives from all parts of India attended the meeting.
These discussions resulted in the framing of the Indian
Constitution, which came into effect on 26 January 1950.
One feature of the constitution was its adoption of Universal Adult
Franchise. All Indians above the age of 21 would be allowed to
vote in state and national elections.
The constitution guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens,
regardless of their caste or religious affiliation. This was
Constitution’s second feature.
The third feature of the Constitution was that it offered special
privileges for the poorest and the most disadvantaged of Indians.
The practice of untouchability was abolished. The Hindu temples
were thrown open to people of all castes.
Along with the former Untouchables, the adivasis or Scheduled
Tribes were also granted reservation in seats and jobs.
The constitution sought to strike a balance of power, between
centre and states by providing three lists of subjects which are
Union list, State list and Concurrent list.
The Union list has subjects like taxes, defence and foreign affairs
which are the responsibility of the Centres.
The State list has subjects like education and health, which would
be taken care of principally by the state.
The Concurrent list comprises of forests, agriculture, etc. in which
the centre and the states would have joint responsibility.
Hindi was designated as the ‘Official language’ of India and
English would be used in the courts, the services and
communications between one state and another.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who was the Chairman of the drafting
committee and under whose supervision the document was
finalized played an important role in framing the Indian
Constitution.
How Were States to be Formed:
In 1920s the Indian National Congress amended its constitution
and reorganized its regional branches on the basis of linguistic
groups.
Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai
Patel were against the creation of linguistic states.
In October 1952, a veteran Gandhian named Potti Sriramulu went
on a hunger strike demanding the formation of Andhra Pradesh to
protect the interests of Telugu speaking people.
On 15 December 1952, fifty eight days into his fast, Potti
Sriramual died. His death led to violence all over the state and
central government was forced to give in to the demand.
On 1 October 1953, the new state of Andhra Pradesh was created.
Planning for Development:
Among the major objectives of the new nation, lifting India and
Indians out of poverty and building a modern technical and
industrial base were very strong.
In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help
design and execute suitable policies for economic development. It
was agreed that India would follow
‘Mixed Economy’ model where both public and private sectors
would co-exist for the economic development of the nation.
In 1956, the second five year plan was formulated which focused
mainly on the development of heavy industries in India such as
steel, and on the building of large dams.
The Nation, Sixty Year On:
On 15 August 2007, India celebrated sixty years of its existence as
a free nation.
In these sixty years India, has seen many achievements as well as
failures.
Success during 60 years of India were-India is still a united and a
democratic country;
There is unity in diversity; There is a free press and an independent
judiciary.
Failures during 60 years of India-Deep divisions persist; Despite
constitutional guarantees, the untouchables or the Dalits face
violence and discrimination.
there are Clashes between different religious groups in many
states; The gulf between the rich and poor has widened over these
years.

Topic: 32
Nationalism and Imperialism
Idealistic liberal democratic sentiments because of a narrow creed
with limited ends.
Nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of each other
and ever ready to go to war.
After 1871 nationlist tension mounted in Europe in the area called
Balkan’s. The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic
variations.
A large part of Balkans was under the control of the ottoman
Empire.
The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans and
downfall of Otto man Empire made this region very explosive.
As the different Slavic nationalist struggled to define their identity
and independence, the Balkans became an area of conflict.
There was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade
and colonies.
This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the first world
war.
Many countries in the world which had been colonized by the
European powers in the 19th century began to oppose imperial
domination.
The anti-imperial movements developed nationalism and formed
independent national states.
A New Conservatism after 1815, After the defeat of Napoleon in
1815 European govts were driven by the spirit of conservatism.
Conservatives believed in traditional institutions of state & society
like the monarchy,the church, social hierarchies, property and the
family be preserved.
In 1815 representatives of the European powers. Britain, Russia,
Prussia and Austria who had collectively defeated Napoleon met
at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe.
The treaty of Vienna of 1815. The Bourbon dynasty which had
been deposed after the French revolution was restored to power.
Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not
tolerate criticism and sought to curb the activities. Most of them
imposed censorship laws to control newspapers, books plays and
songs and reflected ideas of liberty and freedom.
Topic: 33
Nationalism in India
Differing strands within the movement.
Rebellion in the countryside : From the cities, the non co-operation
movement spread to the countryside. After the war, the struggles
of peasants and tribal were developing in different parts of India.
One movement here war against talukdars and landlords who
demanded from peasants exorbitantly high nets and a variety of
other cases. Peasants had to its began.
The peasants movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition
of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
Oudh Kisan Sabha was setup headed by. Jawaharlal Nehru, within
a month, over 300 branches had been set up in the villagers.
Tribal peasants interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi and
the idea of Swaraj in yet another way.
The colonial govt had closed large forest areas preventing people
from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuel
wood and fruits.
Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed that he had a variety of special
powers. He asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of
force.
How participants saw the movement :
Different social groups that participated in the civil disobedience
movement.
Why did they join the movement?
What were their ideals? What did Swaraj mean to them?
In the countryside rich peasant communities, being producers of
commercial crops, they were very hard hit by the trade depression
and falling prices.
The poorer peasantry were not just interested in the lowering of the
revenue demand.
Business classes: They wanted protection against imports of
foreign goods, and a rupees sterling foreign exchange ratio that
would discourage imports.
The industrial working classes did not participate in civil
disobedience movement in large numbers.
Another important feature of the civil disobedience movement was
the large sale participation of women. In urban areas, these women
were from high caste families in rural areas from rich peasants
house holds.

Topic: 34
The Making of a Global World
1.3Conquest, Disease and Trade : In 16th century after European
sailors found a sea route to Asia, they discovered America.
The Indian subcontinent had been known for bustling trade with
goods, people, customs and knowledge . It was a crucial point in
their trade network.
After the discovery of America, its vast lands and abundant crops
and minerals began to transform trade and lives every where.
Precious metals, particularly silver from mines located in Peru and
Maxico enhanced Europe’s wealth and financed its trade with
Asia.
The Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonization of America
was under way. The most powerful weapon of the Spanish
conquerors was not a conventional military weapon but germs of
small pax which they carried. America’s original inhabitants had
no immunity against such type of diseases.
2.1A World Economy Takes Shape :
Abolition of the Corn law.
Under pressure from lauded groups the government restricted the
import of food grains.
After the carn laws were scrapped, food could be imported into
Britain more cheaply than it could be produced in the country.
British farmers were unable to compete with imports. Vast areas of
land were left uncultivated.
As food prices fell, consumption in Britain rose.
Faster industrial growth in Britain led to higher incomes and more
food imports.
Bretton Woods Institutions :
To deal with external surpluses and deficits a conference was held
in July 1944 at Bretton woods in New Hampshire U.S.A.
International Mountary fund and world Bank were set up to
finance post war reconstruction.
The past war international economic system is known as Bretton
woods systems.
This system was based on fixed exchange rates.
IMF and World Bank are referred as Bretton Woods Twins.
U.S has an effective right of veto over key IMF and World Bank.
New International Economic Order – NIEO
Most developing countries did not benefit from the fast growth of
Western economies in 1950’s & 60’s.
They organized themselves as a group. The group of 77 or G-77 to
demand a new international economic order (NIEO).
It was a system that would give them real control over their natural
resources more development assistance, fairer prices for raw
materials and better access for their manufactured goods in
developed countries markets
Topic: 35
The Age of Industrialization
Protective Tariff - To stop the import of certain goods and to
protect the domestic goods a tariff was imposed. This tariff was
imposed in order to save the domestic goods from the competition
of imported goods and also to save the interest of local producers.
Laissez, Faire - According to the economists, for the fast trade a
policy of Laissez Faire should be applied whereby government
should neither interfere in trade nor in the industrial production.
This policy was introduced by a British economist named Adam
Smith.
Policy of Protection - The policy to be applied in order to protect
the newly formed industry from stiff competition.
Imperial preference - During British period, the goods imported
from Britain to India be given special rights and facilities.
Chamber of commerce - Chamber of commerce was established in
the 19th century in order to take collective decisions on certain
important issues concerning trade and commerce. Its first office
was set up in Madras.
Nationalist Message - Indian manufacturers advertised the
nationalist message very clearly. They said, if you care for the
national then buy products that Indians produce. Advertisement
became a vehicle of nationalist message of Swadeshi.
Topic: 36
Print Culture and the Modern World.
The Print Revolution and its Impact.
Printing press, a new reading public emerged. Reduced the cost of
books, now a reading public came into being.
Knowledge was transferred orally. Before the age of print books
were not only expensive but they could not be produced in
sufficient numbers.
But the transition was not so simple. Books could be read only by
the literate and the rates of literary in most European crematories
were very low, Oral culture thus entered print and printed material
was orally transmitted. And the hearing public and reading public
became intermingled.
Religious Debates and the fear of Print.
Print created the possibility of wide circulation of ideas.
Through the printed message, they could persuade people to think
differently and introduced a new world of debate and discussion.
This had significance in different sphere of life.
Many were apprehensive of the effects that the easier access to the
printed world and the wider circulation of books, could have on
people’s minds.
If that happened the authority of ‘valuable’ literature would be
destroyed, expressed by religious authorities and monarchs, as well
as many writers and artists, achievement of religion areas of
Martin Luther.
A new intellectual atmosphere and helped spread the new ideas
that led to the reformation.
Print culture and the French Revolution :
Print popularized the ideas of the enlightenment thinkers.
Collectively, their writings provided a critical connmentary or
tradition, superstition and despotism.
Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. All values,
forms and institutions were re-evaluated and discussed by a public
that had become aware of the power of reason.
1780’s there was an outpouring of literature that mocked the
royalty and criticised their morality. In the process, it raised
questions about the existing social order.
The print helps the spread of ideas. People did not read just one
kind of literature. If they read the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau,
They were also exposed to monarchic and church propaganda.
Print did not directly shape their minds, but it did open up the
possibility of thinking differently.
The Nineteenth Century (Women)
As primary education became compulsory from the late nineteenth
century. A large numbers of new readers were specially women.
Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny
magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals
treaching proper behaviour and house keeping.
In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in England, lower
middle class people. Sometimes self educated working class
people wrote for themselves. Women were seen as important
readers. Some of the best known novelists were women : Jane
Austin, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot. their writings became
important in defining a new type of woman.
 POLITY

Topic: 1
Understanding Diversity
From nature, mankind inherits a variety of things. These include
plants, trees, flowers, birds, animals, religion, race, culture and
color.
Diversity: The differences in race, religion, caste, etc. is known as
diversity.
Social Groups:
Human beings cannot fulfill all their needs on their own. They
depend on other social groups to fulfill these needs.
The various groups are family, community, nation and universe.
Can Friends be Different:
Nothing stops people from different backgrounds from becoming
friends.
Right to Education (RTE) has made provision for poor family
children to study in public schools. This reduce diversity.
How Do we Explain Diversity:
Main initially led a nomadic life.
In later stages, men began to cooperate and intermingled with each
other.
It led to emergence of diversity.
Diversity and Interdependence:
Within a social group, diverse types of activities are performed
depending on their skills, interests and education.
To fulfill one’s needs people depend on others.
With the onset of globalization, the concept of interdependence
between diverse areas has got a boost.
Unity in Diversity:
India is a land where unity and diversity go hand in hand.
Indians joined hands against ‘Phirangi Sahebs’ to liberate the
country.
Pt. Nehru in his book, ‘Discovery of India’, wrote that Indian unity
is not something imposed from outside by rather it is something
deeper and within its folds.
Ladakh and Kerala:
Ladakh is a cold desert in Jammu and Kashmir where sheep is
domesticated and Buddhism is the main region.
Kerala is South India is a multi-religious state and is famous for its
spices and fish.
Topic: 2
Diversity and Discrimination
Difference and Prejudice:
All 8 major religions are practiced in India which has over 1,600
languages.
Sometimes, people with very strange and unfamiliar ideas meet us.
Differences in people exist on various grounds.
These differences lead to prejudice. Prejudice means to judge other
people negatively or see them as inferior.
Creating Stereotype:
As children grow up, boys and girls are taught to do certain types
of tasks.
These are based on certain types of stereotype images. It means to
fix people into one particular image.
Inequality and Discrimination:
Discrimination happens when people act on their prejudices or
stereotypes.
Discrimination can take place because of several reasons.
Groups of people who may speak a certain language, follow a
particular religion, live in specific regions, etc. may be
discriminated against as their customs or practices
may be seen as inferior.
People may suffer discrimination on economic or social grounds.
Tribal, some religious groups and even particular regions are
discriminated against for one or more of these reasons.
On Being Discriminated Against:
People are engaged in certain types of occupations. Certain kinds
of jobs are more valued than others.
Caste rules were set which did not allow the so called untouchables
to take on work, other than what they were meant to do.
Dr Ambedkar suffered discrimination when he was only of nine
years in school.
He emerged as the pioneer of rights of Dalits. He believed the
Dalits must fight against caste system.
Striving for Equality:
The struggle for freedom against British rule also strived for
equality.
Dalits, women, tribals and peasants have fought for long ending
inequality.
After Independence, the framers of the Indian Constitution aimed
for ending inequality.
People were allowed freedom to follow their religion, speak their
language, celebrate their festivals and expose themselves freely.
To guarantee equality, India became a secular state.

Topic: 3
What is Government
Every country needs a government to run the country according to
some laws.
The government plays an important role in our lives and does a
number of things for the people.
Need for a Government:
The government is required to maintain law and order in a country.
Government makes provision for services like roads, electricity,
waterways, railways, health and sanitation, etc.
Government even protects against external aggression and is
responsible for maintaining unity and integrity of the country.
Level of Government:
Government in any country functions at several levels-central,
state and local.
Central government looks after nation, state after the provinces and
local looks after the villages and towns.
Laws and the Government:
Laws are made by the government and as citizens of a country.
Government even has the power to enforce these laws.
Courts have the power to give justice to the aggrieved party.
Types of Government:
The laws are made by the government in a manner depending on
the type of government in the country.
There are two types of governments: Democratic and
Authoritarian.
In a democratic government people have a right to choose their
representatives. For example, India, UK and USA.
Examples of such type of governments are Saudi Arabia and
Myanmar.

Topic: 4
Key Elements of a Democratic Government
For long people have struggled for their rights.
It is generally perceived that democracy is the best system to give
rights to people.
Ending of Racial Discrimination:
The continent of South Africa is very close to the Asian
subcontinent.
For over nearly six decades in later part of the 20th century, the
country was in the news for the practice of apartheid or racial
discrimination.
Majority of the South African population was of blacks. The white
settlers who settled here pursued a policy of ruthless suppression
towards the black majority.
The discrimination was so apparent that everyone could see it.
After several decades of endless struggle, the policy of racial
discrimination towards blacks came to an end in 1994 with Nelson
Mandela being sworn in as a black President.
Participation:
For a successful democracy, it is essential for people to participate
in its governance.
This participation takes place through voting in elections.
In India, general elections are held after every five years to keep a
check on the government.
Other ways of Participation:
In addition to election, there are several other ways of
participation.
Some such methods are dharnas, rallies, strikes, signature
campaigns and other form of protests.
Mass media like TV, newspapers, magazines and other agencies
also play a major role in highliting public issues and moulding
public opinion.
Need to Resolve Conflicts: Role of Government:
In any country problems may result in conflicts and lead to
unpleasantness.
There may arise a situation when two people or two groups feel
that they are not being treated fairly or are being discriminated on
grounds of culture, region, religion,
economic background, caste, race, etc.
It is the government’s responsibility to resolve these conflicts.
Rivers as a Source of Conflict
The water flowing between two states or countries can lead to a
conflict.
For example, Tamil Nadu in India would get water only if
Karnataka releases it and this leads to conflict.
It has led to creation of a tribunal to see sharing of river water in
these states.
Equality and Justice:
One of the main responsibilities of a democracy is giving impartial
justice and equality to all.
Equality and Justice are two different sides of the same coin and
are inserparable in democracy. They go hand in hand.
Dr. Ambedkar, had waged a long struggle for getting rights to
Dalits or untouchables.
Likewise, the Hindu Marriage Act provides equal inheritacnce
right to daughters in their father’s property.
Without justice and equality democracy would remain meaningless
and directionless.
Topic: 5
Panchayati Raj
Since accident times, India has always had a well-developed
system of local administration at the rural level.
This was rooted through the institution of Panchayati Raf at the
rural or village level.
Literally Panchayat means a committee of five people.
Till 1993, the institution of Panchayat as under the control of the
state government.
Sinch 1993, the 73rd constitutional amendment gave Panchayat a
legal status.
It mandatory for the state to hold elections after every five years.
Panchayati Raj in India:
At present, Panachayati Raj consists of three levels:
Gram Sabha which elects Gram Panchayat at village level.
Panchayat Samiti at the block level.
Zila Parishad at the district level.
Gram Sabha:
It is organized in every village.
Gram Sabha consists of all adul citizens above 18 years.
The functions of Gram Sabha are to elect Gram Panchayat,
Pradhan and make budget by reviewing progress of the village.
Gram Panchayat at Village Level:
Gram Panchayat is elected by Gram Sabha.
It has seats reserved for SC/ST and 33% seats are reserved for
women.
Gram Panchayat elects Sarpanch who presides over the meetings
of the Panchayat.
Gram Panchayat performs public welfare activities, look after the
health and education and records death and birth in the state.
Panchayat Samiti at Block Level:
All problems of the village cannot be solved at local level.
To examine the working of Gram Panchayat, there is provision of
Panchayat Samiti at the block level.
It includeds all Sarpanchs of village panchayats, Chairman of
Town Area Committee, B.D.O., members of Zila Parishad from
the block, all area MPs and MLA’s and representatives of SC/ST
and women.
The functions of Panchayat Samiti are to look after health matter,
literacy, etc.
Zila Parishad at District Level:
Zila Parishad is at the highest level.
It consists of Chairman of all Block Samities, area MP’s and
MLA’s, five representatives from each registered cooperative
society, and one representative each of registered social reform
committees.
It coordinates the functioning of Block Samities.
Topic: 06
Rural Administration
India is a vast country with a vast land area.
There are more than six lakh village in India.
It is not provide basic necessities like water, electricity and roads
to all these villages.
Dispute: Police Station
In case of a dispute, in an area people go to the police station.
A particular police station works for a particular area and all
people living in that area are to report any crime, theft, accident or
injury, etc. in their own police station.
In a dispute when a person files a report in the police station it is
called First Information Report (FIR).
Maintenance of Land Records
The village Patwari keeps a record of the land areas kept by
people.
A Patwari deals with measuring land and maintaining the land
records belonging to different villages.
The village Patwari is also responsible for the collection of land
revenue from the village.
The Patwari is assisted by other officers.
Rural Administration: How does it Work Efficiently:
India is divided into states and union territories. These territories
are in turn divided into districts.
In order to run the administration, the district comprises of
adjacent villages and towns.
The district headquarters are locted at a central place. The revenue
department manages all work related to land.
The district collector is the head of the revenue department.
Tehsildar, Naib tehsildar, etc. assist him in his work.
Hindu Law (Hindu Succession Amendment Act 2005)
In ancient times only sons got a share in their father’s property.
After the Hindu Succession Amendment Act 2005 women are
entitled to an equal share in their father’s property.
Topic: 7
Urban Administration
In recent times, there has been a rapid growth in the rate of
urbanization due to growth of cities spread over big areas.
With the evolution of cities, evolved the problem of narrow roads,
traffic jams, water and electricity shortage, crowded hospitals and
lack of basic civic amenities.
Some children broke a tube light on the street. They ran to the
municipal office where they were told that it was maintained by
the municipality.
Municipality:
A municipality is either in the form of a Municipal Committee or
Municipal Council. It is found in towns and small cities.
All citizens who are of 18 years and above can vote in the
elections.
The candidates who wish to contest elections must be 21 years or
above.
Seats are reserved for SC/ST and 33% seats are reserved for
women.
The Council is headed by a Councillor. Big cities consist of
Municipal Corporation.
The chief executive officer of the Municipal Corporation is called
Municipal Commissioner.
The day-to-day work of Municipality is carried out with a number
of committees.
The Municipal Corporation provides for hospitals, public utilities,
record of births and deaths and builds roads, bridges, etc.
Sometimes, community protests to the municipality to take
immediate action of their problems.
Since loads of municipality have increased, workload of
municipality is being shared by private contractors.
Surat city has set a role model for controlling epidemics like
situation.
Topic: 8
Rural Livelihoods
There are several kinds of livelihoods in rural areas.
Kalpattu Village Kalpattu in Tamil Nadu is a village near to the
sea coast.
Ploughing is not done here. People are busy in activities like
making pots, utensils, weaving baskets and making bricks in kilns.
It has a number of shops, Tea, cloth, barber, shop, tailor, etc. are
some major shops found here.
Life in Rural Areas:
Work in rural areas in found only in the harvesting season.
People work as a daily labourers.
Women have to do their domestic duties and event work outside.
People find it difficult even to meet their base existence or basic
necessities.
About two-third of India’s agricultural labourers are landless
labourers.
Since farmers do not have money they fall in a debt trap.
Agricultural Labourers and Farmers in India:
In India only 20% of farmer can boast of a good lifestyle.
Hoarding makes farmers suffer.
Coastal Areas:
People in coastal areas into face a tough life.
Fishing is their main occupation. But when the fishermen are out,
it is not known whether they will come back or not.
Fishermen are unsafe for four months during monsoon season. It is
a lean period for the fishermen.
There is constant battle for survival among majority of people in
rural areas.
Topic: 9
Urban Livelihoods
India can easily boast of as many as five thousand towns and
nearly twenty-seven big cities.
These big cities are also known as metropolis or simply as metros.
They have a population of more than a million people each.
The big cities are Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai and Kolkata. In these
cities, more than a million people live and work.
Occupations: There are three types of occupation: primary,
secondary and tertiary.
In primary occupation people are engaged in agriculture, in
secondary occupation people are engaged in manufacturing and
processing or raw material, in tertiary occupations they are
engaged in providing services.
Types of Livelihoods:
In urban areas different types of people reside and they practice
different types of livelihoods.
They are divided as factory workers who work hard day and night
but are unable to get good salaries.
Shopkeepers and businessman are busy in selling and buying of
different types of things.
Professionals like teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc. form core of the
urban population.
They provide services.
There are some urban people who practice other people who
practice other occupations like vegetable vendors, domestic
servants, garment traders, etc.

Topic: 10
On Equality
Equality is a condition in which adequate opportunities are given
to all.
Equal Right to Vote: In a democratic country like India, adults,
irrespective of their religion, caste education, status or place of
birth, are given the right to vote under Universal Adult Franchise.
Does Equality Exist:
In reality, difference exists between rich and poor.
Caste system is also rigid.
Dalits in India and minorities are denied the right to dignity and
equality.
Equality in India Democracy:
The Indian Constitution recognizes every person as equal.
However, it does not mean that inequality does not exist in India.
Four provisions provide equality in India; equality before the law;
no discrimination on the basis of caste, colour, religion, race,
gender; everyone has access to all public places and untouchability
has been abolished.
The government has tried to implement equality first through laws
and second through government programmes or schemes to help
disadvantaged communities.
Programmes like mid-day meal scheme have been launched to
improve the attendance and enrolment ratio of children in schools.
Issues of Equality in Other Democracies: In USA also the Civil
Rights Movement of 1960’s restored the dignity of Afro-American
based on colour.

Topic: 11
Role of the Government in Health
What is Healht: Health means our ability to remain free of illness
and injuries. There are certain factors which affect our health.
Healthcare in India:
India has the largest number of medical colleges in the world and
is among the largest producer of doctors.
India is the fourth largest producer of medicines in the world.
Most doctors settle in urban areas, while people in rural areas have
to travel long distance for medical facilities.
About 5 lakh people die from tuberculosis every year, while 2
million cases of malaria are reported every year.
Private and Public Healthcare:
Healthcare is divided into two categories: Public health services
and private health services.
Public health services is a chain of health centres and hospitals run
by the government. One important aspect of public health is that it
is meant to provide quality healthcare services either free or at low
cost so that even the poor can seek treatment.
Private health services are not owned or controlled by the
government. People have to pay a lot of money for every service
that they use.
Healthcare and Equality:
In India, private health services are increasing but public health
services are not. As cost of these private services is high, many
people cannot afford them.
Private services sometime encourage practice which are unethical.
Barely 20% of the Indian population can afford medicines that
they require during an illness.
In the responsibility of the government to provide quality
healthcare services to all its citizens, especially the poor and the
disadvantaged.
In 1996, Kerala decentralized its health budget at Panchayati level
to ensure effective health planning.
The best example of healthcare comes from Costa Rica where the
government provides for adequate healthcare to people.
Topic: 12
How the State Government Works
Government works at three levels-national, state and local.
In states, it is the MLA (Member of Legislature Assembly) who
represents the people. The MLAs enter the assembly and form the
government.
Every MLA is elected from one area. This area is known his
constituency.
A political party whose MLA’s won more than half the number of
constituencies in the state get majority.
The political party is called the ruling party.
All the other members are called opposition.
Working of the Government:The head of the state is the Governor
while the head of the government consists of the council of
ministers headed by the Chief Minister.
The leader of ruling party who forms the government is the Chief
Minister.
All the MLA’s sit in a place called the Legislative Assembly.
The legislative assembly is a place where leaders debate and
discuss on important issues and make important bills.
In addition to legislative assembly, press conference is also a mode
of knowing what the government does for the people.
The government works through various departments like public
works department, agriculture, health and education.
The government has the power to make new laws for the state
regarding health and sanitation.
Laws for the state are made by the state legislative assembly.
Laws for the country are made by the Union Parliament.
Topic: 13
Growing up as Boys and Girls
Gender justice is an important issue to be highlighted.
Samoan Islands:
The Samoan islands are one of the large groups of small islands in
the southern part of the Pacific Ocean.
1920s, children in this island did not go to school.
When the babies started walking on own, they were left under the
care of their older brothers and sisters. Children as old as five years
looked after their younger siblings.
After attaining nine years of age, boys joined the older boys for
outdoor activities like fishing and planting coconuts. However,
girls continued looking after the younger ones.
When girls became teenagers, i.e., 14 years of age, they were
allowed more freedom as they could then go for fishing and
plantation activities or help their mothers in cooking, etc.
Madhya Pradesh:
In Madhya Pradesh, India, boys and girls had a different outlook.
The school for boys was open while the one for girls was closed.
Men and women do equal work, but it is not valued equally.
Valuing Housework: Many women work in offices and many do
only household work.
Valuing housework is an important element which needs to be
propagated in society.
If we look at the lives of domestic workers, they are involved in
activities like sweeping, cleaning, cooking, washing clothes and
dishes or looking after children.
Most of these are women.
A number of housework actually involves many different tasks.
The work requires strenuous and physically demanding situation.
Women’s Work and Equality:
While the constitution does not discriminate between male and
female in reality, discrimination still carries on.
The government has set up Anganwadis or child care centres in
several villages to help women.
Topic: 14
Women Change the World
By getting education, women have got opportunities to rise in
every field.
Women’s movement have risen to challenge discrimination in all
parts of the world.
Fewer Opportunities and Rigid Expectation:
A lot of people feel that women are fit only for certain kinds of
jobs like nurse.
They are not fit for the technical jobs.
In most families, women are taught that after school they have to
get married.
Laxmi Lakra, however, broke this stereotype image when she
became the first woman engine driver of the Northern Railways.
We live in a society full of pressures. If boys do not work hard get
a good salary they are builded.
Learning for Change: Going to school is an important part of life.
Today, it is difficult for us to imagine that school andlearning
could be seen as out of bounds or not appropriate for some
children.
In the past, very few people learnt reading and writing. Most
children learnt the work their families or elders did.
Even in families where skills like pottery, weaving and craft were
taught, the contribution of daughters and women was seen as
secondary.
In the nineteenth century, new ideas about learning and education
appeared. But there was a lot of opposition to educate girls ever
then.
In 1890s, Ramabal championed the cause of women’s education.
Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain learnt English from her elder brother
and an elder sister inspite of family opposition and went on to
become a famous writer.
Rashsundari Devi of Bengal was the first Indian woman to write an
autobiography called ‘Amar Jiban’.
Schooling and Education Today: Today both boys and girls attend
school in large numbers.
Difference in their Educaiton Still Remains:
India has a census every 10 years which counts the population of
the country. This information is used to measure things like
literacy, sex-ratio, etc.
A huge number of SC and ST children leave school at an early age.
The 20014 census even shows that Muslim girls are less likely than
Dalit girls to complete primary school.
Many reasons like non-availability of teachers and schools, lack of
transport, cost of education, indifferent attitude of teachers and
parents are responsible for negligence of education.
Women’s Movement: Women have individually and collectively
struggled to bring about changes. This is called Women’s
Movement.
Different strategies have been used to spread awareness, fight
discrimination and seek justice.
These movements are related to campaigning, raising awareness,
protesting and showing solidarity.
Topic: 15
Understanding Media
Media is the plural form of the word ‘medium’ and it describes the
various ways through which we communicate in society.
Media refers to all means of communication, everything ranging
from a phone call to the evening news on TV can be called media.
TV, radio and newspapers are a form of media.
Since they reach millions of people across the world they are
called mass media.
Media and Technology: Life without media is difficult. The Cable
TV and the Internet are a recent phenomena.
Both print media and electronic media have played an important
role in social change.
Changing technology or machines help media to reach more
people.
Television has enabled us to think of ourselves as members of the
global people.
Balanced report is essential in media which has to report
independently.
Media is far from being independent. This is because of the control
of government over media called censoring and because big
business houses control the media.
Media and Money: The different technologies that mass media use
are expensive.
In a news studio, it is not only the newreader who needs to be paid
but also a number of other people who help put the broadcast
together.
A lot of money is spent on getting the latest technology. To meet
this cost, it needs money.
Media thus has come to be owned by big corporates.
Media therefore uses advertising as a tool to raise revenue.
Media and Democracy: Media plays a very important role in
providing news and discussing events taking place in the country
and the world.
New stories of media inform people about important events in the
country.
Some important ways in which people about important events in
the country.
Setting Agendas: The media also plays an important role in
deciding what stories to focus on.
By focusing on particular issues, it influences and shapes our
thoughts. It is said the media sets the agenda for people.
Very recently, the media reported alarming levels of pesticides in
cold drinks. This report led to safety standards being set for colas.
Media plays a very important role in our lives as it tells us about
working of government.
Topic: 16
Understanding Advertising
Advertisements draw our attention to various products, describing
them positively so that we become interested in buying them.
Building Brands and Brand Values: Advertising is all about
building brands. At a very basic level, branding means stamping a
product with a particular name of sign.
For example, there are many soaps but every company will have to
give the soap a different name. by doing this, they create another
brand of soap.
Through advertisements, the company uses visuals and images to
create a brand value for their product such that the products may
create and impression in customer’s mind.
Brand Values and Social Works: Advertisements play an important
role n social and cultural life.
Branded products are costly but companies link them to style,
design, etc. such that people tend to buy them.
Advertisements appeal to personal emotion of people which induce
people to buy the products.
How does an Advertisement Get Made: Advertising plays an
important role in making a brand name.
Advertising is normally made by advertising agencies which help
in devising a marketing strategy.
Campaigning is done carefully by the companies to promote their
products.
Advertising and Democracy: Advertising a product costs a lot of
money.
It makes us believe that things that are packaged and have a brand
name are far better than things that do not come in packets.
Democracy is based on equality. As citizens of a democratic
country, people should understand that they can take a better
decision about whether they wish to buy a product or not.
Topic: 17
Markets Around Us
A market is where buyer and seller are involved in the sale and
purchase of goods. It established a link between the producer and
the consumer.
Weekly Market: A weekly market is so-called because it is held on
a specific day of the week.
Weekly markets do not have permanent shops.
There are thousands of such market in India.
People come here for their everyday requirements.
Traders set up shops for the day and the close them up in the
evening.
Many things are available in a weekly market at cheaper rates.
Weekly markets even have a large number of shops selling the
same goods which means there is a competition among them.
One advantage of weekly markets is that most of the things of need
are available at one place.
Shops in the Neighbourhood: There are many shops that sell goods
and services in our neighborhood.
We may buy milk from the dairy, grocery from the departmental
stores, etc.
These shops are useful as they are near our home and we can go
there on any day of the week.
Shopping Complexes:There are other markets in the urban area
which have many shops at one place called a shopping complex.
In these urban markets, you get both branded and non-branded
goods.
Chain of Markets: The people in between the producer and the
final consumer are traders.
The person who produces goods in the producer. The person who
buys goods from him is the wholesaler. The wholesaler gives it to
the traders who gives it to the consumer.
This trader is known as the retailer.
The retailer could be a trader in a weekly market, a hawker,
neighbourhood shop owner in the shopping complex, etc.
Markets Everywhere: All markets work in a space in a particular
manner and time.
Buying and selling takes place in different ways, not necessary
through shops in the market.
There are even markets we may not be aware of. This is because a
large number of goods that we don’t use directly are also bought
and sold.
For example a car factory purchases engine, parts, gears, petrol
tanks, axles, wheels, etc. from various other factories.
We, however, do not get to know about either the manufacturers or
the sellers involved in it.
Topic: 18
Civics A Shirt in the Market
This deals with steps involved in marking a shirt.
A Cotton Farmer in Kurnool:
A small farmer grows cotton on his small piece of land. Once the
harvesting is done, cotton balls are collected.
These are taken to the local trader as the farmer had borrowed
money from the trader to buy seeds, fertilisers, etc. for cultivation.
Even though the market price is high, the trader buys it at a meagre
price from the farmer.
The Cloth Market of Erode:
The bi-weekly market of erode in Tamil Nadu is one of the biggest
cloth markets in the world.
Cloth made by weavers from all over comes here for sale.
Instructions about the type of cloth to be made is given in advance.
The weavers get yarn from the merchants and supply them the
cloth.
It saves money of the weavers as they do not have to buy yarn.
Likewise, the problem of selling the cloth is also taken care of.
Since weavers do not know the price of the cloth, they are at a loss
and get very small amount.
The Garment Exporting Factory near Delhi:
Erode merchants sent the cloth to graments export centre in Delhi.
The garments factory makes shirts to be sold to the chain of
business from the US and Europe.
They set standard of quality and time.
Faced with pressure the garment centre tries to extract maximum
work from their workders of the lowest cost.
Most hired workers are temporary and get low salary.
The Shirt in the US:The shirts sent from garments export centres
are sold in dollars in the US.
The shirts sold at Rs 200 by the garment export centre sell at Rs
1,200 in the US.
Thus, a chain of markets links the producers of cotton to the buyers
at the supermarket.
Market and Equality: Foreign businessman made huge profits in
the market.
Garment manufacturers only make moderate profits.
Weavers at Erode market and small farmers don’t make huge
profit.
Poor people have no option but to depend on the rich.
Poor are exploited in the market.
Laws should be made to protect the interest of weavers and small
farmers.
Topic: 19
Struggles for Equality
The Indian Constitution recognize all Indians are equal before the
law such that no person is discrimination against because of their
religion, sex, caste, or whether rich or poor.
All adults in India have equal rights to vote during elections, and
this ‘power over the ballot box’ has been used by people to elect or
replace their representatives for many years.
However the feeling of equality on the basis of ‘one vote one
person’ in reality does not extend to all. Poor people face
negligence and these people do not get justice in maaters of
health, education, etc.
Domestic helpers, small farmers and many others are forced to
work in hardships due to poverty and shortage of resources.
People also face inequality on grounds of religion, caste and
gender in India.
Struggles for Equality: Throughout the world, people are fighting
for their rights and equality, trying to end
the discrimination which they face.
Wome’s struggle and movements for equality was one such group
fighting for equality.
The Tawa Matsya Sangh in Madhya Pradesh is also an example of
people coming together to fight for an issue.
There are many other struggles such as those of beedi workers,
fishfolk, agricultural labourers, slum dwellers, etc. who have been
fighting for equality and justice.
Tawa Matsya Sangh (TMS): It is a federation of fisherworker’s
cooperatives that fights for the rights of forest
dwellers who have been displaced from Satpura forest located in
Madhya Pradesh.
With the beginning of the construction of Tawa Dam in 1958 till
its completion in 1978, large parts of the forest and agricultural
areas were submerged. Thus, the forest
dwellers had to suffer a set back as they earned very little.
To government gave rights for fishing in the Tawa reservoir but to
only private contractors in 1994.
When the contractors started exploiting the poor villagers, they
came together to form a union and set up an organization to protect
 their rights, which was called Tawa Matsya Sangh.
Rallies and Chakka jam were organized time and again. In
response, the government granted fishing, rights to the villagers in
1996.
The Indian Constitution as a Living Document: The foundation of
all movements for justice and the inspiration for all the poetry and
songs on equality is the recognition that all people are equal.
Movements and struggle for equality in India promote equality.
Indian constitution is a living documents recognizing greater
equality on existing and other issues.
Iit guarantees dignity, self-respect and equality, all of which are
required in a democracy.

Topic: 20
The Indian Constitution

• Why Does a Country Need a Constitution: A Constitution

lays out certain ideals that form the basis of the kind of country that
we as citizens as pire to live in.

A Constitution tells about the fundamental nature of our society.

A Constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all
persons in a country can agree upon as the basis of the way in
which they want the country to be governed.
This includes the type of government and also an agreement on
certain ideals that transition of Nepal into a democracy, it started
the process of writing a new constitution for the country.
In a democracy, leaders exercise their power responsibly on the
behalf of the people.
In democratic societies, the constitution lays down rules that guard
against the misuse of authority by our political leaders.
A Constitution plays an important function in a democracy to
ensure that a dominant groups does not use its power against any
person, group, organization, etc.
Consititution prevents tyranny or domination by the majority of a
minority.
The Constitution helps to protect us against certain decisions that
 we might take and which may have an adverse effect on the larger
principles that the country believes in.

• The Indian Constitution Key Feature: The Indian National Movement

had been active in the struggle for Independence from British rule for
several decades.

Fedaralism: Refers to the existence of more than one level of

government in the country.
Parliamentary Form of Government: The Constitution of Indian
guarantees universal adult suffrage for all citizens. This means
people have a direct role in electing their representatives.
Separation of Powers: There are three organs of the states: (a) the
Legislature (b) the Executive and (c) the Judiciary.
they all believe the country should uphold.
When Nepal was a monarchy, it reflected the final authority of the
king. AfterThe legislature refers to our elected representative, the
executive is a smaller group of people who are responsible for
implementing laws and running the government. The judiciary
refers to the system of courts in the country.

• Fundamental Rights: The Fundamental Rights are referred to as the

‘conscience’ of Indian Constitution.

Fundamental Rights protect citizens against the arbitrary and

absolute exercise of power by the state.
The Constitution guarantees the rights of individuals against the
State as well as against other individuals.
There are six Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution,
which are: (i) Right to Equality; (ii) Right to Freedom; (iii) Right
against Exploitation; (iv) Right to Freedom
of Religion; (v) Cultural and Education as Rights; (vi) Right to
Freedom of Religion; (v) Culture and Education as Rights; (iv)
Right to Constitution Remedies.
In addition to Fundamental Rights, the Constitution has a section
called Directive Principles of State Policy. It ensures greater social
and economic reforms and to serve
as a guide to independent Indian state to institute laws and policies
 that help reduce the poverty of the masses.
A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote
any one religion as the state religion.
The Constitution plays a crucial role in laying out the ideals that
we would like all citizens of the country to adhere to, including the
representatives that we elect to rule us.
Topic: 21
Understanding Secularism Secularism
It Refers to Separation of Religion:
The Indian Constitution allows individuals the freedom to live by
their religious beliefs and practices.
Indian adopted a strategy of separating the power of religion and
the power of the state.

• Why is it important to Separate Religion from the State:

It prohibits the domination of one religion over another.

To protect the freedom of individuals to exit from their religion,
embrace another religion or have the freedom to interpret religious
teachings differently.

• What is Indian Secularism: The Indian Constitution mandates that the

Indian state be secular state.

One religious community does not dominate another in a secular

state.
In a secular state, some members do not dominate other members
of the same religious community.
The state does not enforce any particular religion nor take away the
religious freedom of individuals.
The government schools can not promote any one religion.
In order to respect the sentiments of all religions and not interfere
with religious practices, the state makes certain expections for
particular religious communities.
The Indian secularism works to prevent the domination.
In order to prevent this religion based exclusion and
discriminationof lower castes, the Indian Constitution bans
untouchability.
 To ensure that laws relating to equal inheritance rights are
respected, the state may have to intervene in the religion based
‘personal laws’ of communities.
The intervention of the state can be in the form of support.
The first amendment of the US constitution prohibits the
legislature from making laws “respecting an establishment of
religion” or that prohibits the free exercise of religion.
The Indian state is secular and works in various ways to prevent
religious domination.
Topic: 22
Why Do We Need a Parliament Parliament
It enables citizens of India to participate in decision making and
control the
government, thus making it the most important symbol of Indian
democracy and a key feature of the Constitution.

• Why Should People Decide: Under the colonia rule, the people did not
critised British government but the freedom movement changed this
situation.

The Constitution in independent India laid down the principle of

universal adult franchise i.e, that all adult citizens of the country
have the right to vote.

• People and their Representatives: A democracy is the idea of consent,

i.e., the desire, approval and participation of people.

The basic idea in democracy is that the individual or the citizen is

the most important person and that in principle the government as
well as other public institutions need to have the trust of these
citizens.
The Parliament, which is made up of all representatives together,
controls and guides the government.

• The Role of the Parliament: The Indian Parliament is an expression of

the faith that the people ind India have in

the principles of democracy.

 The Parliament in our system has immense powers because it is the
representative of the people.
The Lok Sabha is elected once every five years. The country is
divided into a number of these constituencies. Each of these
constituencies elect one person to the parliament.
Once elected, the candidates become members of parliament or
MPs. These MPs together make up the Parliament.

• Parliament Performs the Following Functions: The Parliament in India

cosists of the President, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha.

There are 543 elected plus 2 nominated members in Lok Sabha.

The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the ruling party in the
Lok Sabha.
Coalition government is formed when one political party does not
get simple majority.
In such a condition, a group of different political parties come
together to form a government.
The Rajya Sabha functions primarily as the representation of the
states of India in the Parliament.
It has an important role of reviewing and altering the laws initiated
by the Lok Sabha.
The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected
members of the Legislative Assemblies of various states.
In the Rajya Sabha there are 233 elected members plus 12
members nominated by the President.

• To Control, Guide and Inform the Government: The Parliament, while

in session, begins with a question hour.

The question hour is an important mechanism through which an

MP can elicit information about the working of the government.
The Opposition parties play a crucial role in the healthy
functioning of the democracy.
The highlight drawbacks in various policies and programmes of
the government and mobilise popular support for their own
policies.
The government gets valuable feedback and is kept on its toes by
 the questions asked by the MPs.
Law-making is a significant function of the parliament.

• Who are the People in Parliament:The Parliament has more and more
people from different backgrounds.

There has been an increase in political participation from the Dalit

and backward castes and the minorities.
Some seats are reserved in the Parliament for SCs and STs.
It has recently been suggested that there should be reservation of
seats for women.
Topic: 23
Understanding Laws

• Do Laws Apply to All: All persons in independent Indian are equal

before the law.

The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their

religion, caste or gender.
All laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can
be above the law.
Any crime or violation of law has a specific punishment.
In ancient India, there were innumerable and overlapping local
laws which did not apply equally to all.
The punishment for the same crime varied depending upon their
caste background with lower castes being more harshly penalized.
The British colonialists introduced the rule of law in India. The
colonial rule was arbitrary.
The British law of the Sedition Act of 1870 set a perfect example
of the arbitrariness.
Under this Act, a person protesting or ciriticising the British
government could be arrested without due trial.
Indian nationalists began protesting and criticizing the arbitrary
use of authority by the British.
They began fighting for greater equality and wanted to change the
idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced to obey, to law
as including ideas of justice.
By the end of 19th century, the Indian legal profession began
 emerging and demanded respect in colonial courts.
Indian judges began to play a greater role in making decisions.
With the adoption of the constitution, laws for the country began to
the made by the representatives.

• How Do New Laws Come About: The Parliament has an important

role in making laws.

An important role of Parliament is to be sensitive to the problems

faced by people The issue of domestic violence was brough to the
attention of the Parliament and the
process adopted for this issue to become law.
The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 was
implemented to protect women from being abused and injured by
male.
The role of citizens is crucial in helping Parliament frame different
concerns that people migh have into laws.

• Unpopular and Controversial Laws: Sometimes the Parliament passes

laws that turn out to be very popular.

Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid and legal, but it can

continue to be popular and unacceptable to people because they
feel that the intention behind it is
unfair and harmful.
People might criticize this law, hold public meetings, write about it
in newspaper,
report to TV news channels etc.
In a democracy, citizens can express their unwillingness to accept
repressive laws framed by the Parliament.
When a large member of people begin to feel that a wrong law has
been passed, then there is pressure on the Parliament to change
this.
If the law favours one group and disregards the other, it will be
controversial and lead to conflict.
The court has the power to modify or cancel laws if it finds that
they don’t adhere to the Constitution.
In India, people have the right to protest against unjust laws.
 Topic: 24

• What is the Role of the Judiciary:

• The judicial system provides a mechanism for resolving disputes
between citizens,

citizens and the government, two state governments and the central
and state governments.
The judiciary has the power to strike down particular laws passed
by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the
basis structure of the Constitution. This is
called judicial review.
Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court or the High
Court if his/her Fundamental Rights have been violated.

• What is an Independent Judiciary: India has an independence of the

judiciary that allows the courts to play a centra role in ensuring that
there is no moisture of power by the legislature and the executive.

It plays a crucial role in protecting the Fundamental Rights of

citizens because anyone can approach the courts if they believe
that their rights have been isolated.

• What is the Structure of Courts in India: There are three different

levels of courts in our country.

At district level, we have subordinate or district courts. At the state

level, we have several High Courts. The High Court is the highest
judicial authority in a state. At the top is the Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial authority. It is
located in New Delhi and is presided over the Chief Justice of
India. The decisions made by the Supreme Court are binding on all
other courts in India.
In India, we have an integrated judicial system, meaning that the
decision made by higher courts are binding on the lower Courts.

• What are the Different branches of the Legal System: Court cases are
broadly divided into civil cases and criminal cases.
 Civil laws deals with any harm or injury to rights to individuals.
Criminal law deals with the conduct or acts that the law defines as
offences.
In civil cases, a petition has to be filled before the relevant court by
the affected party only.
In criminal cases, it usually begins with the lodging of our First
Information Report (FIR) with the police who investigate the crime
after which a case is filled in the court.

• Does Everyone Have Access to the Couts: In principle, all citizens of

India can access the courts in this coutry. This implies that every citizen
has a right to justice through the courts.

Legal procedures involve a lot of money and paper work which

take up a lot of time.
Poor people often avoid to go the court to get justice.
The Supreme Court devised a mechanism of Public Interest
Litigation or (PIL) to increase access to justice in 1980’s. It
allowed any individual or organization to file a PIL in the High
Court or the Supreme Court on behalf of those whose right were
being violated.
The legal process was simplified and even a letter or telegram
addressed to the Supreme Court or the High Court could be treated
as a PIL.
The court exercise a crucial role in interpreting a Fundamental
Rights of Citizens.
The judiciary serves as a check on the powers of the executive and
the legislature and protecting the Fundamental Rights of the
citizens.
Topic:25
Understanding Our Criminal Justice System

• There are four people who play a key role in our criminal justice
system. They are Police, Public Prosecutor, the Defence Lawyer and
the Judge.
• What is the Role of Police in Investing a Crime:

The important function of the police is to investigate any

 complaint about the combination of a crime.
An investigation includes recording statements of witness and
collecting different kinds of evidence.
If the police think that the evidence points to the guilt of the
accused person, then they file a chargesheet in the court.
The police investigations always have to be conducted in
accordance with law and full respect for human rights.
Article 22 of the Constitution and criminal law guarantee to every
arrested person the following Fundamental Rights.
The Right to be informed at the time of arrest of the offence for
which the person is being arrested.
The Right not to be ill treated or tortured during arrest or in
custody.
Conffessions made in police custody cannot be used as evidence
against the accused.
A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the
police station only for questioning.

• What is the Role of the Public Prosecutor:

In court, Public Prosecutor represents the interests of the State.

The role of the Public Prosecutor begins once the police has
conducted the investigation and filed the charge sheet in the court.
The Public Prosecutor must conduct the prosecution on behalf of
the State.
The Public Prosecutor is expected to act impartially and present
the full and material facts, witnesses and evidence before the court.

• What is the Role of the Judge: The judge hears all the witnesses and
any other evidence presented by the prosecution and the defence.

The judge decides whether the accused person is guilty or innocent

on the basis of the evidence presented and in accordance with the
law.
If the accused is convicted, the judge pronounces the sentence.

• What is a Fair Trial: According to Article 21 of the Constitution that

guarantees the right to life states that a person’s life or liberty can be
 taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure.

A fair trial ensures that Article 21 of the Constitution is upheld.

Every citizen, irrespective of his class, caste, gender, religious and
ideological backgrounds should get a fair trial when accused.
The rule of law says that everyone is equal before the law would
not make much sense if every citizen were not guaranteed a fair
trial by the constitution.

Topic:26
Understanding Marginalisation

• What does it mean to be Socially Marginalised: To be marginalized it

t be forced to occupy the sides or fringes and thus not be at the centre of
things.

Sometimes marginalized groups are viewd with hostility and fear.

To make certain groups in society feel marginalized, there are
economic, social, cultural and political factors. Thus,
marginalization is seldom experienced in one sphere.

• Who are Adivasis: The term ‘Adivasis’ refers to the original

inhabitants.

Adivasis are communities who lived and often continue to live in

close association with forests.
Adivasis are particularly numerous in states like Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and in the
north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Orrisa is home to
more than sixty different tribal groups.
Adivasis practice a range of tribal religions that are different from
Islam, Hinduisma and Christianity.
Adivasis worship ancestors, own village and nature spirits. They
have been influenced by different religions, like Shakta, Buddhist,
Vaishnav, Bhakti and Christianity.
Adivasis have their own languages, Santhali has the largest
number of speakers and has a significant body of publication.
• Adivasis and Stereotyping:

Adivasis are invariably portrayed in very stereotypical ways-in

colourful costumes, headgear and through their dancing.
Adivasis are blamed for their lack of advancement as they are
believed to be resistant to change or new ideas.
People believe that the Adivasis have a primitive background.

• Adivasis and Development:

Forests play a crucial role in the development of all empires and

settled civilization in India.
Adivasis had deep knowledge of forest. Often empires heavily
depended on Adivasis for the crucial access to forest resources.
In today’s world. Adivasis are considered marginal and powerless
communities.
In the pre-colonial world, they were traditionally ranged hunter-
gatherers and nomads and they lived by shifting agriculture and
cultivating at one place.
For the past two hundred years, Adivasis have been forced through
economic changes, forest policies and political force applied by
State to migrate as workers in plantations, industries and as
domestic workers.
Forest lands have been cleared for timber and to get land for
agriculture and industry.
Huge tracts of lands have gone under the waters of hundreds of
dams that have been built in independent India.
Losing their lands and access to the forests means that tribals lose
their main source of livelihood and Adivasis have migrated to
cities in search of work.
They get caught in the cycle of poverty and deprivation. Almost
45% of tribal groups in rural areas and 35% in urban areas live
below the poverty line.

• Minorities and Marginalisation:

The term minority is most commonly used to refer to communities

that are numerically small in relation to the rest of the population.
 Safeguards are needed to protect minority communities against the
possibility of being culturally dominated by the majority.
The Constitution provides these safeguards because it is committed
to protecting
India’s cultural diversity and promoting equality as well as justice.

• Muslims and Marginalisation:

Muslims are 13.4% of India’s population and are considered to be

a marginalized community in India.
They have over the years been deprived of the benefits of socio-
economic development. They have been deprived of basic
amenities, literacy and public employment.
Recognizing that Muslims in India were lagging behind in terms of
various development in indicators, the government set up a high-
level committee in 2005.
The report of the community suggests that Muslim community is
comparable to that of other marginalized communities like
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

• Conclusion:

In India, there are several more marginalized communities like

Dalits.
Marginalized communities want to maintain their cultural
distinctiveness while having access to rights, development and
other opportunities.
Topic: 27
Confronting Marginalisation

• Invoking Fundamental Rights:

The Fundamental Constitutional Rights are equally available to all

Indians including marginalized groups.
Adivasis, Dalits, Muslims, women and other marginal groups
argue that simply by being citizens of a democratic country, they
possess equal rights that must be respected.
Mnay among them look up to the Constitution to address their
 concerns.
By insisting on their Fundamental Rights, they have forced the
government to recognize the injustice done to them and they have
insisted that the government should enforce these laws.
The struggles of the marginalized groups have influenced the
government to frame new laws, in keeping with the spirit of the
Fudamental Rights.
Article 17 of the Constituion states that untouchability has been
abolished.
This means that no one can henceforth prevent Dalit from
educating themselves, entering temples, using public facilities, etc.
Article 15 of the Constitution states that no citizen of India shall be
discriminated against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or
place of birth. This has been used by Dalits to seek equality where
it has been denied to them.

• Laws for the Marginalised Goups:

There are specific laws and policies for the marginalized groups in
our country.
The government makes an effort to promote such policies to give
opportunities to specific groups.
The government tries to promote social justice by providing for
free or subsidized hostels for the students of Dalit and Adivasi
communities.
The reservation policy is significant and highly contentious.
The laws which reserve seats in education and government
employment for Dalits and Adivasis are based or an important
argument that in a society like ours, where for centuries sections of
the population have been denied opportunities to learn and to work
in order to develop new skills or assist these sections.
Governments across India have their list of Scheduled Castes or
Dalits, Scheduled Tribes and backward and most backward castes.
The cenral government too has its list.
Students applying to educational institutions and those applying
for posts in government are expected to furnish proof of their caste
or tribe status, in the form of caste and tribe certificates.
• Protecting the Rights of Dalits and Adivasis:

Our country has specific laws that guard against the discrimination
and exploitation of marginalized communities.
The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of
Atrocities) Act was framed in 1989 to protect Dalits and Adivasis
against the domination and violence of the powerful castes.
A number of assertive Dalit groups came into being and asserted
their rights-they refused to perform their so-called caste duties and
insisted on being treated equally.
In the 1970’s and 1980’s Adivasi people successful organized
themselves and demanded equal rights and for their land resources
to be returned to them.
This Act distinguishes several levels of crimes.
It lists-modes of humiliation that are both physically horrific and
morally reprehensible.
Actions that disposess Dalits and Adivasis of their meagre
resources or which force them into performing slave labour.
Crime against Dalit and tribal women are of a specific kind and
therefore seeks to penalize who use force on these women.
Manual scavenging referes to the practice of removing human and
animal water/excreta using brooms, tin plates and baskets from dry
latrines and carrying it on the head to the disposal ground some
distance away.
In 1993, the government passed the Employment of Manual
Scavengers and Contruction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act.
This law prohibits the employment of manual scavengers as well
as the construction of Dry latrines.

• Adivasis Demands and the 1989 Act

The 1989 Act is important because Adivasi refer to it to defend

their right to occupy land that was traditionally theirs.
Adivasis often unwilling to move from their land, are forcibly
displaces.
This act merely confirms that the land belonging to the tribal
people cannot be sold to or bought by non-tribal people.
 Topic: 28
Public Facilities

• Water and the People of Chennai:

Mr Ramgopal lives in Anna Nagar, Chennai. This area looks lish

and green with lawns maintained by a generous spraying of water.
Likewise, in an apartment where Mr Subramaniam lives water
supply is inadequate.
They have to spend Rs 500-600 per month to buy water.
Water as a public utility is available in different quanta to different
people.

• Water as Part of the Fundamental Rights to Life:

Water is essential for life and for good health.

India has one of the largest number of causes of water related
diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera.
The Constitution of India recognizes the right to water as being a
part of the Right to Life under Article 21.
The High Courts and Supreme Court have held that the right to
safe drinking water is a Fundamental Right.

• Public Facilities:

Things like electricity, public transport, schools and colleges, etc.

are known as public facilities.
Public facilities are provided so that its benefits can be shared by
many people.

• The Government’s Role:

One of the most important functions of the government is to ensure

that these public facilities are made available to everyone.
Private companies operate for profit in the market. Public facilities
relate to people’s basic needs.
The main source of revenue for the government is the taxes
collected from the people and the government is empowered to
 collect these taxes and use them for such programmes.
For instance, to supply water, the government has to incur costs in
pumping water, carrying it over long distances, laying down pipes
for its distribution, treating the water for impurities and finally
collecting and treating waste water.
It meets these expenses partly from the various taxes that it collects
and partly by charging a price for water. This price for water.
This price is set so that most people can afford a certain minimum
amount of water for daily use.

• Water supply to Chennai: is it Available to All:

Water supply in Chennai is marked by shortage. Municipal supply

meets only about half the needs of the people of the city, on an
average.
The burden of shortfalls in water supply falls mostly on the poor.
In search of Alternatives.
The Scenario of shortage and acute crisis during the summer
months is common to other cities of India.
A shortage of municipal water is often taken as a sign of failure of
the government.
Throughout the world, water supply is the responsibility of the
government. There are very few instances of private water supply.
There are areas in the world where public water supply.

• Conclusion:

Public facilities relate to our basic needs and the Indian

Constitution has recognized the right to water, health, education,
etc. as being a part of the Right to Life.
The major role of the government is to ensure adequate public
facilities for everyone.
Topic: 29
Law and Social Justice

• To protect people from exploitation the government makes certain

laws. These laws try to ensure that the unfair practices are kept at a
minimum in the markets.
• To ensure that workers are not underpaid but are paid fairly, there is a
low on minimum wages.
• There are laws that protect the interests of producers and consumers in
the market.
• The government has to ensure that these laws are implemented which
means that the law must be enforced.
• Enforcement becomes even more important when the laws, the
government can control the activities of individuals or private
companies so as to ensure social justice.
• Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution like ‘Right
against Exploitation’ say that no one can be forced to work for low
wages or under bondage.
• The Constitution lays down ‘no child below the age of 14 years shall
be employed to work in any factory or mines or engaged in any other
hazardous employment.
• Bhopal Gas Tragedy:

The world’s worst industrial tragedy took place in Bhopal 24 years

ago.
Union Carbide (UC) an American company had a factory in the
city in which it produced pesticides. MIC, a highly poisonous gas,
started leaking on 2 December 1984, at midnight from the factory.
Us stopped its operations but left behind tons of toxic chemicals.
24 years later, people are still fighting for justice, for safe drinking
water, for healthcare facilities and jobs for the people poisoned by
UC.

• What is a Worker’s worth:

Foreign companies come to India for cheaper labour.

Wages in USA are higher than that compared to workers in poorer
countries like in India.
For lower pay, companies can get longer hours of work.
Cost cutting can be done by other more dangerous means, e.g.,
lower working conditions including lower safety measures are
used as ways of cutting costs.
Since there is as much unemployement, there are many workers
 who are willing to work in unsafe conditions in return for a wage.

• Enforcement of Safety Laws:

As the lawmaker and enforcer, the government is supposed to

ensure that safety laws are implemented.
It is the duty of the government to ensure that the Right to Life
guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution is not violated.
Instead of protecting the interests of the people, their safety was
being disregared both by the government and by private
companies.
With more industries being set up both by local and foreign
business in India, there is a great need for stronger laws protecting
workers rights and better enforcement of these laws.

• New Laws to Protect the Environment:

In 1984, there were very few laws protecting environment in India

and there was hardly any enforcement of these laws.
Environment was treated as a ‘free’ entity and industry could
pollute the air and water without any restricted.
Whether it was our rivers, air or groundwater the environment was
being polluted and the health of people disregarded.
The polluter was to be held accountable for the damage done to
environment.
The Government is responsible for setting up laws and procedures
that can check pollution, clean rivers and introduce heavy fines for
those who pollute.

• Environment as a Public Facility:

Environment issue in India has highlighted the fact that the

growing concern for the environment among the middle classes is
often at the expense of the poor.
The challenge is to look for solutions where everyone can benefit
from a clean environment.
The government has to encourage and support factories to
gradually move to cleaner technologies.
 This will ensure that the workers livelihoods are protected and
both workers and communities living around the factories enjoy a
safe environment.

• Conclusion:

Laws are necessary in many situations, whether this be the market,

office or factory so as to protect people from unfair practices.
Laws that are weak and poorly enforced can cause serious harm.
While the government has a leading role in the respect, people can
exert pressure so that both private companies and the government
act in the interests of society.

Topic: 30
Power Sharing
Power Sharing :
Power sharing is important because it the conflict between
different social groups.
Social conflicts often lead to violence and political instability,
power sharing is a good way to ensure the stability of political
order.
A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by
its exercise, and who have to live with its effects.
One basis of principle of democracy is that people are the source
of all political power.
Power is shared among different organs of govt such as the
legislature, executive and judiciary.
Power can be should among governments at different levels a

general govt. for the entire country and governments at the

provincial or regional level.

Topic: 31
Federalism
Features of Federalism
There are two or more levels of Govt.
Different tiers of Govt. govern the same citizens, but each tier has
its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and
administration.
The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of Govt are
specified in the constitution.
Require the consent of both the levels of Govt.
Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers
of different levels of Govt.
An ideal federal system has both aspects : mutual trust and
agreement to live together.
The first route involves independent states coming together on
their own to form a bigger unit.
The second route is where a large country decides to divide its
power between the constituent states and the national Govt.
Federalism in India
The constitution originally provided for a two tier system of Govt
the union Govt or what we call the Central Govt, representing the
union of India and the state Govt. later, a third tier of federalism
was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities.
Constitution clearly provided a three fold distribution of legislative
powers between the union Govt and the state Govt :
Union list : Defence of the country foreign affairs, banking.
State List : Police, trade, commerce, agriculture.
Concurrent List : Education, Forest, Trade Union, Marriage.
Residuary Subject : Computer software
Only Jammu & Kashmir has their own constitution.
Decentralization in India
When power is taken away from central and State Govt. and given
to local Govt. it is called decentralisation.
The basic idea behind decentralisation is that there are a large
number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local
level.
Local govt. get constitutional importance in democracy.
And representation of women may also increased with this role
played by women in democracy became more stronger.
Topic: 32
Democracy and Diversity
Differences, Similarities and Divisions
 Origins of Social Differences On the basis of birth on the basis of
colour Politics of Social Divisions
Democracy involves competition among various political parties.
Their competitions tends to divide any society if they start
competing in terms of some existing social divisions, it can make
social divisions into political divisions and lead to conflict,
violence or even disintegration of a country.
It would be best if there are no social divisions in any country.
If social divisions do exist in a country, they must never be
expressed in politics.
Social divisions affect voting in most countries.
In a democracy, political expression of social divisions is very

normal and can be healthy.

Expression of various kinds of social divisions in politics after

results in their canceling one an other out and thus reducing

their intensity.

Topic: 33
Gender Religion and Caste
Public / Private Division
In fact the majority of women do some sort of paid work in
addition to domestic labour. But their work is not valued and does
not get recognition.
Although women constitute half of the humanity, their role in
public life especially politics, is minimal in most societies.
Women in different parts of the world organised and agitated for
equal rights. There were agitation demanded enhancing the
political and legal status of women and improving their
educational and other opportunities.
More radical women movements aimed at equality in personal and
family life as well. These movements are called feminist
movements.
Patriarchal Society : Mostly societies are male dominating even
day to day participation of women may increase than also our
society is a patriarchal society on the basis of Literacy rate
 No wonder the proportion of women among the highly paid and
valued jobs is still very small.
Her work is not paid and therefore often not valued.

Women are paid less than men.

Girl child aborted before she is born. various kinds of harassment,

exploitation and violence against women.
Religion, Communalism and Politics
Unlike gender differences, the religious differences are often
expressed in the field of politics.
Communalism happens when beliefs of one religion are presented
as superior to those of other religions, when the demands of one
religious group are formed in opposition to another and when state
power is used to establish domination of one religious group over
the rest. This manner of using religious in politics is communal
politics.
Communalism can take various forms in politics :
Stereo types of religious communities and belief in the superiority
of one’s religion over other religions.
A desire to form a separate political unit.
Often involves special appeal to the interests in preference to
others.
Ugly form of communal violence, riots and massacre. Secular
State,No official religion - constitution does not give a special
status to any religion. freedom to profess, practice and propagate
any religion.
The constitution prohibits discrimination on ground of religion.
allows the state to intervene is the matter of religion.
Ensure equality within religious communities.
Caste and Politics :
They keep in mind the caste composition of the electorate and
nominate candidates from different castes.
Political parties and candidates in elections make appeals to caste
sentiments to muster support.
No parliamentary constituency in the country has a clear majority
of one single caste.
 No party wins the votes of all the voters of a caste or community.
Topic: 34
Popular struggles and Movements
Establishment of democracy in Nepal.
Meaning of the word democracy : - Democracy is the govt of the
people, for the people and by the people.
The aims of movement for democracy in Nepal : The Nepalese
movement for democracy arose with the specific objectives of
reversing the kings orders that
led to suspension of democracy. Establishment of democracy in
Nepal :
Democracy established in Nepal in 1990.
King Birendra accepted it.
King Gyanendra the new king of Nepal was not prepared to accept
democratic rule after the death of king Birendra.
The king dismissed the popularly elected Parliament.
The movement of April 2006 was aimed at regaining popular
control over the govt from the king and establish democracy means
the govt of the people.
All the major parties of parliament formed a seven party alliance.
(SPA)
and called for a four day strike in Kathmandu, the country’s
capital.
On 21st April the protestors served an ultimatum to the king.
24th April 2006 was the last day of the ultimatum, the king was
forced to concede all the demands.
The SPA choose Girija Parasad Koirala as new Prime Minister of
the interim govt.
This struggle came to be known as Nepal’s second movement

for democracy.

Topic: 35
Sectional Interest groups and Public Interest Group
meaning of Interest Groups:
Usually interest groups seek to promote the interests of a particular
section or group of society.
Sectional Interest Groups :- They are sectional because they
represent a section of society-workers, employees, business,
persons, industrialists, followers of religion, caste group etc.
Features : Their principal concern is the betterment and well being
of their members, not society in general.
Public Interest Groups : Public interest group promote collective
rather than selective goods. They aim to help groups other than
their own members.
Example : BAMCEF (Backward and minorities community
employees federation).
Topic: 36
Political Parties
Meaning : A political party is a group of people who come
together to contest elections and hold power in govt and make
public opinion among the people of country.
The role of Political Parties to Shape Public Opinion :
They raise and highlight issues.
The parties clear the policies of govt. to people.
The parties clear the policies of govt. to people.
Political parties give their ideas in favour and against the govt.
Political parties give their ideas about the new laws made by the
govt.
In this way the political parties help to create public opinion in
people. So it is necessary for people if they want to establish
democratic govt. they have to analyze for and against democracy.
Challenges to Political Parties:
Parties are for the working of democracy parties are the most
visible face of democracy. It is natural that people blame parties,
criticise them.
Parties have to face many challenges :-
Lack of Internal democracy :-
Concentration of powers in one hand.
Parties do not conduct internal election.
Leaders assume greater power to make decision in name of party.
The second challenge of dynastic succession is related to the first
one.
Those who happen to be the leaders are in a position of unfair
advantage to favour people close to them or even their family
members.
Growing role of money and muscle power in parties :
The parties tend to nominate those candidates who have or can
raise lots of money. In some cases parties support criminals.
The fourth challenge is that very often parties do not seem to offer
a meaningful choice. In order to offer meaningful choice, parties
must be significantly different.
There has been a decline in the ideological differences among
parties.
The difference among all the major parties on the economic
policies have reduced.
Those who want really different policies have no option available
to them.
Lack of good leaders.
Topic : 37
Reforming the Political Parties
The constitution was amended to prevent elected members from
changing parties.
The supreme court passed an order to reduce the influence of
money and criminals.
Now it is mandatory for every candidate who contests elections to
file an affidavit giving details of his property.
The election commission passed an order making it necessary for
political parties to hold their organizational elections and file their
income tax returns.
A law is made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties.
The govt. should give money to parties for election so that every
one who wants to participate in elections can do the same.
Topic: 38
Outcomes of Democracy
Democracy is better than others
We felt that democracy is better because it :
Promotes equality among citizens.
Enhance the dignity of the individual
Improves the quality of decision making.
Provides a method to resolve conflicts.
Allows room to correct mistakes.
The countries which have formal constitutions, they hold elections
and form govts.
They guarantee rights of citizens.
Democracy solves the social and political and economic problems
of the country.
Topic: 39
Accountable responsive and Legitimate Govt.
Accountable Govt. : Democracy is a accountable govt because it is
the govt. of the people and made by people and for the people.
The representatives elected by the people are responsible to them.
If the people are not happy with the govt they can change the
leaders in coming elections.
Responsive Govt. : A citizen who wants to know if a decision was
taken through the correct procedures can find this out. She has the
right and the means to examine the process of decision making.
This type of transparency is not available in non democratic govts.
Legitimate Govt. : Democratic govt is legitimate govt.
It may be slow, less efficient, not always very responsive or clean.
But a democratic govt is people’s own govt’s can not ignore the
needs of people.
So people wish to be ruled by representatives elected by them.
Topic: 40
Challenges to Democracy
Challenges to Democracy :
The serious challenges that democracy face in a country for
smooth running of govt is called challenges. A challenge is not just
any problem. We usually call only those difficulties a challenge
which are significant and which can be overcome.
Challenges : At least one fourth of global is still not under
democratic govt. The challenge for democracy in these parts of the
world is very stark. These countries
face the foundational challenge of making the transition to
democracy and then instituting democratic govt.
Most of the established democracies face the challenge of
expression. This involves applying the basic principles of
democratic govt across all the region, different social groups and
various institutions.
Challenge of deepening of democracy is faced by every democracy
in one form or another. This involves strengthening of the
institutions and practices of democracy. They should happen in
such a way that people can realise their expectations of democracy.
Elections are very expensive. The only rich persons can elect
elections. The common man can not stand in elections. The govt
should minimise the election expenditure. The govt should prepare
budget for elections.
Topic : 41
Political Reforms in Democracy
Meaning : All the suggestions or proposals about overcoming
various challenges to democracy are called democracy reform or
political reform.
Reforming politics by making new laws.
Carefully devised changes in law can help to discourage wrong
political practices and encourage good ones.
Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have
on politics.
Sometimes the results may be counter productive. For example,
many states have banned people who have more than two children
from contesting panchayat elections. This has resulted in denial of
democratic opportunity to many poor people and women.
The best laws are those which empower people to carry out
democratic reforms.
Any proposal for political reform should think not only about what
is a good solution but also about who will implement it and how.
 ECONOMY
Topic: 1
Development
Development Different People, Different Goals.
Different persons can have different development goals.
What may be development for one may not be development for the
other. It may be destructive for the other.
Income and Other Goals : More income; equal treatment; freedam;
Job security; facilities for family; environment (healthy & secure).
Concept of National Development :World Development Report
2006, “In 2004 countries with per capita income of Rs. 453000 per
annum are called rich or developed countries.
Those with per capita income of Rs.37000 or less are called low
income countries.
Human Development Report 2006 published by UNDP,
“Development is based on per capita income, educational levels of
the people and their health status.
Sustainability : The regular process without harming the
productivity of future generation and satisfy the need of present
generation.
Sustainable Development : Development without damaging
surrounding.
Average Income : Total income of the country divided by its total
population.
Also known as per capita income.
National Income : Sum of value of final goods produced within the
country and income from foreign factors.
Infant Mortality Rate : The number of children that die before the
age of one year as a proportion of 1000 live children born in that
particular year.
Literacy Rate : The proportion of literate population in the 7 and
above, age group.
Net attendance Ratio : the total number of children of age group 6-
10 attending school as a percentage of total number of children in
the same age group.
Topic: 2
Sectors of the Indian Economy
Sector of Economic Activities :
Primary Sector : When we produce a good by exploiting natural
resources. It is an activity of the primary sector also known as
agriculture and related sector.
Secondary Sector : Natural products are changed into others forms
through ways of manufacturing. Also known as Industrial sector.
Tertiary Sector : These activities , by themselves, do not produce a
good but they are an aid or a support for the production process.
Also known as service sector.
Gross Domestic Production : the total value of final goods and
services produced in each sector during a particular year provides
the total production of the sector for that year.
Rising importance of the Tertiary Sector : In any country several
services such as hospitals, educational institution, defence,
transport, banks etc. are required.
The development of agriculture and industry leads to the
development of services such transport, banks are required.
The development of agriculture and industry lends to the
development of services such as transport, trade, storage.
As income levels rise, certain sections of people start demanding
many more services like tourism, shopping, private hospitals and
private schools etc.
Over the past decade or so certain new services such as those
based on information and communications technology.
Disguised unemployment : More people engaged in than the
people required for work. People do less work than their
efficiency.
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005
100 days work guarantee in year by the government.
If government fails in its duty to provide employment. It will give
unemployment allowances.
Types of work given to improve production of land.
Organised Sector : Terms of employment are regular Registered by
government Follows various rules and regulations.
It has some formal processes and procedures.
Unorganised Sector : Small and scattered units which are largely
outside the control of the government.
There are rules and regulations but these are not followed.
Employment is not secure.
Topic: 3
Money and Credit
Barter System : Goods are exchanged without use of money.
Double Coincidence of wants : In exchange of goods both parties
have to agree to sell and buy each others commodities.
In a barter system double coincidence of wants is an essential
feature.
Medium of Exchange : Money act as an intermediate in the
exchange process.
Currency is authorised by the government as medium of exchange.
People deposit extra cash with the banks by opening the bank
account in their name.
The deposits in the bank accounts can be withdrawn on demand,
these deposits are called demand deposits.
A check is a paper instructing the bank to pay a specific amount
from the persons account to the person in whose name the cheque
has been made.
Loan Activities of Banks: Banks in India these days bold about
15% of their deposits as cash.
Kept as provision to pay the depositors who might come to
withdraw money from the bank on any given day.
Bank use the major portion of the deposits to extend loans.
Difference between the interest rates is the main source of income
for banks.
Terms of Credit : Interest rate Collateral documentation
requirement.
The mode of repayment: The varying terms of credit in different
credit arrangements.
 Formal Sector Credit in India
Loans from banks and co-operatives Functions of Reserve banks.
Issues currency notes on behalf of the central government.
RBI monitors the banks are actually maintaining cash balance.
RBI collect information from banks, how much they are lending to
whom, at what interest rate etc.
Informal Sector Loans
The informal lenders, traders, employers, relatives and friends etc.
There is no organisation which supervise the credit activities of
lenders.
They can lend at what ever interest rate they choose.
Their is no one to stop then from using unfair means to get their
money back.
Topic: 4
Globalisation and the Indian Economy
Various ways By which MNCs set up or control production in
other countries.
Set up production jointly with some of the local companies. Joint
production provides money for additional investment and latest
technology for production.
To buy up local companies and then expand production.
Place orders for production with small producers.
By setting up partnerships with local companies, by using the local
companies for supplies, by closely competing with the local
companies or buying them up, MNCs are exerting a strong
influence on production at these distant locations.
As a result, production in these widely dispersed locations is
getting interlinked.
Foreign Trade and Integration of Markets :

- Exchange of goods - purchase and sale - across geographical

boundaries of the countries.
- Goods travel from one market to another.
- Choice of goods in the market rises.
- Prices of similar goods in the two markets tend to become equal.
- Producers in the two countries closely compete against each
other even though they are separated by thousand of miles. Thus
 foreign trade results in connecting the markets or integration of
markets in different countries.

Trade Barriers and its importance :

- Various restrictions which are used by the government to

increase or decrease Foreign Trade.
- Government uses trade barriers to increase or decrease Foreign
Trade and to decide what kinds of goods and how much of each,
should come into the country.

Special Economic Zones :

- Setting up of industrial zones by the central and state

governments to attract Foreign Companies to invest in India
which have world class facilities, electricity, water, roads,
transport, storage, recreational and educational facilities.

Impact of Globalisation in India :

Greater competition among producers - both local and foreign
producers has been of advantage to consumers.

- There is greater choice before these consumers who now enjoy

improved quality and lower prices for several products.
- Foreign investment has increased.
- Increased competition has encouraged top Indian Companies to
invest in newer technology and production methods and raise
their production standards.
- Globalisation has enabled some large Indian Companies to
emerge as Multinational.
- Created new opportunities for companies providing services
particularly those involving Information Technology.

Topic: 5
Consumer Rights
Rights of Consumers :
Rights which are provided by law :
Right to safety
 Right to be informed
Right to choose
Right to be heard
Right to seek redressal
Right to consumer education.
Factors causing exploitation of Consumers :

- Limited information
- Limited supplies
- Limited competition
- Low literacy

Duties of Consumers :

- To purchase quality marked products such as ISI, AGMARK

etc.
- To ask for cash memo for the items purchased whenever
possible.
- To make complaint for genuine grievances consumers must
know their rights and must exercise them.

Demerits of Consumer Redressal Process :

- The Consumer Redressal Process is becoming cumbersome

expensive and time consuming.
- Many a time, consumers are required to engage lawyers. These
cases require time for filling and attending the court proceedings
etc.
- In most purchases cash memos are not issued hence evidence is
not easy together.
- Most purchases in the market are small retail sales.
- The enforcement of laws that protect workers, especially in the
unorganised sectors is weak.
- Rules and regulations for working of markets are often not
followed.

Consumer Protection Act - 1986 (COPRA)

- To protect and promote the interest of consumers.
- Under COPRA a three-tier quasi-judicial machinery at the
district, state and national levels is set up for redressal of
consumer disputes.
- The district level court deals with the cases involving claims
upto Rs. 20 lakhs.
- TheState level courts between Rs. 20 lakhs and Rs. 1 crore and
the national level court deals with cases involving claims
exceeding Rs. 1 crore.
 SCIENCE
Topic-1
Food:
➢ Food is a Nutritious substance that people or animals eat or drink, or
that plants absorb.
In order to maintain the life and growth.
➢ There is a lot of variation in the food which are eaten by us.
➢ The main sources of our food
Plants and animals
➢ Food sources from plants
Vegetables, Pulses, spices, cereals, fruits, oils, etc.
➢ Food sources from animals
Milk, Egg, Honey, Meat, Fish, etc.
➢ Other sources of food are salt and water.
➢ Herbivores ​ Animals which eat only plants are called
herbivores.
Eg:- cow, goat, sheep etc.
➢ Carnivores ​ Animals which eat only animals are called
carnivores.
Eg:- Tiger, lion, etc.
➢ Omnivores ​ Animals which eat both plants as well as other
animals are called omnivores.
Eg:- bears, foxes, dogs, etc.
➢ Scavengers ​ Animals that live on dead and decayin food is
called as scavengers.
 Eg:- hyenas, vulture, etc.
➢ Nutrients: Food substances that provide nourishement to the body.
➢ The major nutrients in our food are carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins and minerals.
➢ Food also contains dietary Fibres and water
➢ Carbohydrates and fats mainly provide energy to our body
➢ Carbohydrates: These are energy-giving compounds.
➢ There are simple carbohydrates or complex carbohydrates.
➢ Fats: These are very high energy-giving compounds. They produce
greater amount of energy than carbohydrates.
➢ Minerals: These are elements required by the body in small amounts.
It is essential for growth and development of bones, teeth and red blood
cells.
➢ Proteins: These are body-building foods. They help in the growth of
the body
➢ Vitamins: These are organic substances that protect the body from
diseases.
➢ Roughage: It is the dietary fibre present in the food. It facilitates
regular movement of the bowels and it prevents the constipation.
➢ Balanced diet: It provides all the nutrients that our body needs, in right
quantities, along with adequate amount of roughage and water
➢ Deficiency Diseases: These are the diseases which are caused due to
the lack of required nutrients for a long period of time in the diet.
Some Nutrients Deficiency Diseases :
➢ Deficiency of Protein ​Kwashiorkar- Stunted growth, thinning
of legs etc.
➢ Deficiency of Protein and Carbohydrates ​Marasmus, lack of
energy
➢ Deficiency of Vitamin D ​ ​Rickets- Bowed legs, bent spine.
➢ Deficiency of Vitamin C ​ ​Scurvy -Bleeding and swelling of
gums, weakness.
➢ Deficiency of lodine ​Goitre Enlargement of thyroid gland,
retarded growth.
➢ Deficiency of Iron Anaemia ​ Fatigue, loss of appetite, pale
skin.
Topic:-2
 ➢ Fibres: A thread or filament from which a vegetable tissue, mineral
substance, or textile is formed.
➢ There are two types of fibres:
Natural Fibres: The fibres which are obtained from plants and
animals.
Eg:-cotton, jute, silk and wool.
Synthetic Fibres: Man-made fibres which are not obtained from
plant and animal sources.
Eg:- rayon, polyester etc.
Fibres from plant sources:
➢ Cotton: cotton is grown in black soil and warm climate
➢ Jute: jute is obtained from stem of jute plant.
➢ Fibres from animal sources:
➢ Wool: wool cloth is spun from yarn made from the fibres of the thick
fleece of sheep.
➢ Silk: silk thread is obtained from the saliva of an insect called
silkworm.
Preparation of wool:
It involves four steps:
➢ Shearing: The process of removal of wool from the sheep's skin.
➢ Grading: The process of separating fleece from damaged wool.
➢ Carding: The process after the wool has been washed and dried, it is
passed through the rollers which have have teeth
➢ Spinning: The process by which fibres are gathered together and
drawn into a long rope and then twisted to make yarn.
➢ Fabrics are made from yarns, which in turn are made from fibres.
➢ Making Fabric from Yarn: It is done by two processes:
➢ Weaving: The process by two sets of yarns are arranged together to
form fabric. It is done on looms.
➢ Knitting: The process by which a single yarn is used to make fabric. It
is done by hands or machines
Sorting Material into Groups
➢ Objects around us are made up of a large variety of materials
➢ A given material could be used to make a large number of objects.
➢ It is also possible that an object could be made of a single material or
made from many different types of materials.
 ➢ Different types of materials have different properties.
➢ Some materials are shiny in appearance while others are not. Some are
rough, some are smooth.
➢ Similarly, some materials are hard, Some others are soft.
➢ Some materials are soluble in water whereas some others are insoluble
➢ Some materials such as glass, are transparent and some others such as
wood and metals are opaque. Some materials are translucent.
➢ Materials are grouped together on the basis of similarities and
differences in their properties.
➢ Materials are classified based on their properties like: appearance,
hardness, solubility, float/ sink, transparency, conduction of heat, states
of matter, conduction of electricity, attraction towards magnets,
combustibility
Advantages of classification:
➢ Helps in identification of objects.
➢ Helps in sorting of objects
➢ Helps in locating things.
➢ Makes study of different objects easy and more meaningful rather than
studying each other separately
➢ Helps to understanding similarities and dissimilarities among objects.
Topic:- 3
Separation of substances
➢ Some of the methods of separating substances from mixtures are
Handpicking, winnowing, sieving, sedimentation, decantation and
filtration
Methods of separation:
Separation of solid from other solids:

Threshing: Process by which the grains are released from the chaff.
Winnowing: The process of separation of heavier and lighter
components of a mixture by wind or blowing air
Hand-picking: The process by which undesirable components are
just picked up by hand
Sieving: The process by which separate solid constituents of a
mixture which differ in their sizes
Magnetic separation: Process by which magnet is moved over such
a mixture the magnetic material sticks to it and is removed.
 Separation of water soluble solids:
➢ Evaporation: Process by which the conversion of liquid state into
gaseous state on heating.
➢ Condensation: Process by which conversion of gaseous state into
liquid state on cooling.
Separation of insoluble solids from Liquids:
➢ Sedimentation: It allows heavier matter to settle down. Example: sand,
water
➢ Decantation: The methods of separating insoluble solids from liquids.
➢ Loading: The methods by which finer particles are made to settle
faster by dissolving a small quantity of alum.
➢ Filtration: The liquid that collects in the beaker is called filtrate
Separation of Immiscible Liquids:
➢ Funnel: The method of separating mixture of oil and water
➢ Centrifugation: The method in which mixture containing suspended
particles is rotated at a high speed in a centrifuge and heavier particles
settle down. It is used for separating cream from milk.
➢ Churning: The method which is used for separating lighter particles of
solid suspended in a liquid. Example: butter from curd.
➢ Husk and stones could be separated from grains by handpicking.
➢ Husk is separated from heavier seeds of grain by winnowing
➢ Centrifugation: The method in which mixture containing suspended
Particles are rotated at a high speed in a centrifuge and heavier particles
settle down. It is used for separating cream from milk.

Topic:-4
Changes Around Us
➢ Some changes can be reversed and some cannot be reversed.
➢ A change may occur by heating a substance or by mixing it with some
others
➢ Types of changes:
➢ Reversible change: A change in which the initial substance can be
obtained back by reversing the action.
Eg:-:folding of paper, dissolving sugar in water, etc.
➢ Irreversible change: Change in which the initial substance cannot be
obtained back by reversing the action.
Eg:- burign of paper, grinding grains etc.
 ➢ Physical change: Changes in the form of substance but not in chemical
identity. No new substance formed. Changes are sometimes reversible.
Eg:- breaking a log of wood.
➢ Chemical changes: Changes in which substance is transformed into
new substance. Initial substance is lost. Change is always irreversible.
Eg:- burning a log of wood by which changes occur
➢ Boiling and Condensation:
➢ Boiling: The rapid vaporization of a liquid when it is heated to its
boiling point.
➢ Condensation: The change of water vapor into liquid water on cooling.
➢ Heating of metal: Process in which a metal is heated to a certain
temperature and the cooled in a particular manner to alter its internal
structure for obtaining desired degree of physical and mechanical
properties such as brittleness, hardness, and softness.
➢ Freezing and Melting:
➢ Freezing: The process in which a liquid turns into solid when its
temperature is lowered.
➢ Melting: The process in which a solid converts to a liquid by applying
heat.
Topic:-5
Plants :
➢ Plants are usually grouped into herbs, shrubs, trees, and climbers
based on their height, stems and branches.
➢ Classification of Plants on the of Growth Habitat:
➢ Herbs: Have soft green and week stems. Example rice, wheat, maize,
sunflower, mint, etc
➢ Shrubs: They are bushy and have hard stems that do not bend easily.
These are plants with the stem branching out near the base. Eg:- lemon,
china rose, jasmine etc.
➢ Trees: These are big plants which have a tall and strong stem (trunk).
➢ Stems: These have branches in the upper part, much above the ground
and Live for many years.
Eg:-mango, neem, banyan, coconut, etc
➢ Climbers: These Have weak stems and cannot stand erect They take
support of other trees and climb on them Example: pea, grape, vine, etc.
 ➢ Creepers: Plants which creep on the ground and spread out
Eg:- pumpkin and watermelon.
Classification of plants on the basis of their Life Cycle:
➢ Annuals: Plants whose life cycle is completed in the one season. These
are generally herbs.
Eg:- wheat and mustard.
➢ Biennials: Plants whose life cycle requires two seasons for
completion. They are generally herbs and rarely shrubs.
Eg:- carrot, radish and potato.
➢ Perennials: Plants whose life cycle runs for more than two seasons
Eg:- guava, palm trees.
Parts of a Plants:
➢ Root system: It is the underground portion of the plant
➢ 1.Tap Root: It is the main primary root arises from lower end of the
stem.
➢ A number of tiny braches called secondary roots.
Eg:- mustard, Neem, rose etc.
➢ 2.Fibrous Root: A bunch of roots arises from the bark of stem.
Example: wheat, maize, etc.
Functions of root system:
➢ Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil.
➢ Roots help the plant to stand erect
➢ Roots check soil erosion.
➢ Roots store food.
➢ Prop roots offer extra support.
➢ Shoot system: The part of the plant which grows above the soil. It
includes stems, branches, leaves, flowers and fruits.
➢ Stem: Gives rise to a number of branches that bear leaves. The stem
bears, leaves, flowers and fruits.
➢ Leaf: Leaf arises from the leaf base. A leaf usually has a petiole and a
lamina.
➢ Parts of leaf:
Petiole: Stalk of the leaf with which it joined to the stem.
Leaf lamina: The flat green portion of the leaf
Veins: These are the network of small, narrow, tube-like structures on both
sides of the midrib present in the middle of leaf.
➢ Flower: It is the reproductive organ of the plant.
Function of Stem:
➢ It provides support to plant
➢ It bears important plant parts.
➢ It helps in transportation of water and food.
➢ Underground stems store food.
Function of Leaf:
Transpiration: Process of lose in water by the leaves of a plant
➢ Preparation of food by the process of photosynthesis
Function of Flowers:
➢ Help in reproduction.
➢ These become fruits that store food and seeds.
Parts of Flower:
➢ Modified flowers like cauliflower, broccoli are rich sources of
vitamins.
➢ Pedicel: Stalk of the flower through which the flower is joined to the
branch. It has joined to the branch.
➢ Sepal: Small green leaf-like structures on the thalamus. They protect
the flower
➢ Petals: Brightly colored leaf-like structures present inside the sepals.
Petals attract the insects and help in the process of reproduction.
➢ Stamens: These are long, thin and needle-like structures. These are
male organs of the flower. It consists of two parts: Anther, Filament.
➢ Anther: The swollen tip of each stamen that encloses in it a small
powdery substance called pollen grains.
➢ Filament: Long stalk-like structure that joins the anther with thalamus.
➢ Carpel: It is a flask-shaped organ in the centre of flower. It is the
female organ of the flower. It consist three parts: Style, Stigma and
Ovary
➢ Style: Long thin tube-like structure which is swollen at the base
➢ Stigma: Small, round and sticky part of the carpel at the top of the
style the traps the pollen grains.
➢ Ovary: Swollen part of carpel that contains ovules
➢ The pattern of veins on the leaf is called venation. It can be reticulate
or parallel
➢ Leaves give out water Vapour through the process of transpiration.
➢ Green leaves make their food by the process of photosynthesis using
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight.
 ➢ Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil and anchor the plant
firmly in the soil.
Roots are mainly of two types:
Tap root and fibrous roots.
➢ Plants having leaves with reticulate venation have tap roots while
plants having leaves with parallel venation have fibrous roots.
➢ The stem conducts water from roots to the leaves (and other parts) and
food from leaves to other parts of the plant.
Topic:-6
Body Movements
➢ Locomotion: Movement of organisms from place to place
➢ Locomotion in human body:
➢ Human skeleton: It forms a framework that gives shape and support to
the body
➢ It consists of 206 bones. It protects internal organs.
➢ Skull: It protect the brain. It is rigid box made up of plates of bone
firmly joined together
➢ Rib cage: It is flexible case of ribs. Each rib curves round the side of
the chest from the backbone and is joined in front to a plate of bone
called sternum. Ribs are connected to one another by the muscles.
➢ Two lower most pairs of ribs are called floating ribs
➢ Backbone: It is also called the spine or vertebral column. It is a chain
of small bones called vertebrae. It protect the spinal cord, which carries
messages between the brain and body.
➢ It also support the skull, ribs and limbs.
➢ Limbs: It is made up of long bones with joints that allows them to
move. They are mainly for support.
➢ Arms: fore-arms is made up of two bones and hands have several
small bones.
➢ Shoulder bones have a pair of collar bones in front and a pair of
shoulder blades.
➢ Legs: Lower leg is made up of two bones and feet have several small
bones.
➢ Hip bones or gridles bear weight of body and are attached to thigh
bones.
➢ Joints: The point where two bones meet. Allow movement to take
 place.
➢ Bones are held together by ligaments.
Movable Joints: It allows movement between bones and have cartilage
between them.
Type of movable joints are
➢ Hinge Joints: It allow movement only in one plane backwards and
forwards.
Eg:- elbow joints, knee joints and joint between phalanges of fingers
and toes.
➢ Ball and Socket Joints: It permit a circular movement.
Eg: the shoulder
➢ Gliding Joints: It allow bones to slide a little.
Example: bones inside phalanges of fingers and toes.
➢ Ball and Socket Joints: It permit a circular movement.
Example: the shoulder
➢ Gliding Joints: It allow bones to slide a little.
Example: bones inside wrists and feet.
➢ Pivotal Joints: Joint where the neck joins the head. It allows head to
move backward and forward and turn to right and left.
➢ Immovable or Fixed Joints: The bones cannot move at these joints.
Eg:- bones in skull, joint between upper jaw and rest of skull.
Locomotion in other animals:
➢ Fish: Locomotion achieved by lateral contractions of the muscular
body with a final thrust by the tail. Fish swim by forming loops
alternately on two sides of the body
➢ Birds: When the large flight muscles contract, they pull the wings
down
➢ Snails: The muscular foot helps in locomotion.
➢ Earthworms: Move by stretching out body in front and keeping the
hind end fixed to the ground.
➢ The bones are moved by alternate contractions and relaxations of two
sets of muscles
➢ The bone joints are of various kinds depending on the nature of joints
and direction of movement they allow Strong muscles and light bones
work together to help the birds fly. They fly by flapping their wings.
➢ Snakes slither on the ground by looping sideways. A large number of
bones and associated muscles push the body forward.
 ➢ The body and legs of cockroaches have hard coverings forming an
outer skeleton. The muscles of the breast connected with three pairs of
legs and two pairs of wings help the cockroach to walk and fly.
Topic:-7
THE LIVING ORGANISMS AND THEIR SURROUNDİNGS
➢ The surroundings where plants and animals live, is called their habitat
➢ Several kinds of plants and animals may share the same habitat.
➢ The presence of specific features and habits, which enable a plant or
an animal to live in a Particular habitat, is called adaptation.
➢ There are many types of habitats, however, these may be broadly
grouped as terrestrial and aquatic (in water)
➢ There is a wide variety of organisms present in different habitats.
➢ Plants, animals and microorganisms together constitute biotic
components.
➢ Rocks, soil, air, water, light and temperature are some of the abiotic
components of our surroundings
Characteristics of living things:
➢ They need food to grow and for the processes.
➢ The young ones grow into adults
➢ They respire. Animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon
dioxide. Plants take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen.
➢ They respond to changes in the surrounding (stimuli).
➢ They all get rid of wastes produced in the body (excretion)
➢ They reproduce their own kind.
➢ They show movement
➢ Habitat: The surroundings where organisms live. It has two
components biotic (living things like plants and animals) and biotic
(non-living things like rocks, soil, air and water)
Type of Habitat

Terrestrial Habitat: Plants and animals live on land.

Eg:- forest, grasslands, deserts, coastal and mountain ranges.

Aquatic Habitat: Plants and animals live in water. Example: ponds,

swamps, lakes, rivers and oceans.
 ➢ Adaptations: Presence of specific features or certain habits which
enable an organism to live in its surrounding.
➢ Terrestrial:
➢ Deserts: Small animals stay in borrows deep in sand during day, and
come out at night. In plants, leaves are either absent or very smell as
spines; stem has a thick waxy coating: roots go deep into the soil.
➢ Mountains: Animals have thick skin or fur; mountain goat has strong
hooves. Trees are cone shaped having sloping branches; leaves are
needle like
➢ Grasslands: Animals are light brown in colour,
➢ Lion:Long clause in front legs that can be withdrawn inside the toes;
eyes in front of face.
➢ Deer: Strong teeth, long ears, eyes on the sides of head.
➢ Aquatic:

Ponds:

➢ Plants with roots fixed in soil: Stems are long, hollow and light; leaves
float on water
➢ Plants with roots submerge: Leaves are narrow and thin ribbon-like
➢ Oceans:
➢ Animals have streamlined body
Animals like squids and octopus do not have streamlined body and stay
deep in water
Topic:-8
Motion And measurement of distances
➢ Different modes of transport are used to go from one place to another
➢ Now, we use International System of Unit (SI unit). This is accepted
all over the world.
➢ Metre is the unit of length in SI unit.
➢ Motion in a straight line is called rectilinear motion.
➢ In circular motion an object moves such that its distance from a fixed
point remains the same
➢ Motion that repeats itself after some period of time, is called periodic
motion.
➢ Measurement: The comparison of an unknown quantity with some
 known quantity of the same kind. Measurement of an object consists of
The unit of measurement
➢ The number of units the object measures.
➢ Conventional Methods of Measurement: Conventional measurements
have only been approximate measurement. Differ from person to
person. Lack precision.
➢ Handspan: Length between the tip of thumb and little finger
➢ Cubit: Length between the tip of middle finger and elbow.
➢ Arm length: Length from shoulder to the tip of middle finger
➢ Footstep: It is the distance covered by a step
➢ Standard units of Measurement: It is a unit to measure any quantity
completely and uniformly.
➢ Standard units for measuring, length-metre, mass-kilogram, time-
second.
➢ Motion: When the position of a body does not change with the passage
of time, the body is said to be at rest When the position of a body
changes with the passage of time, the body is said to be in motion.
➢ Types of motion
➢ Linear motion: Linear motion are further classified into two
➢ Rectilinear Motion: Object moves from one position to another along
a straight line.
Example: group of ants moving in a line.
➢ Curvilinear Motion: Object moving align a curved lines.
Eg:-A Car moving along a curved road.
➢ Random Motion: When object moves from one position to another and
changes direction in an irregular manner.
Example: butterfly, flies randomly in garden.
➢ Circular Motion: Object moves in a circular manner in relation to its
own axis or around a fixed centre. Object remains at the same distance
from a fixed point which is the centre of the path of the motion. Two
types of circular motion:
➢ Revolution: Object moves as a whole around a fixed
centre. Eg:-earth revolving around the sun in a definite orbit
➢ Rotation: Object moves in a circular path in relation to its own fixed
axis.
Example: blades of a moving fan, windmill, etc.
➢ Vibratory Motion: Object moves to and fro very fast. Example: strings
 of a guitar when plucked.
➢ Periodic Motion: Object oscillates to and fro along the same path
again and again and with the same speed. Time taken by an object to
complete one oscillation is same, no matter how many oscillations the
object takes.
Example: heartbeat, pendulum of a clock.
➢ Non-periodic Motion: Object do not repeat motion at regular intervals
of time
➢ Uniform Motion: When the body covers equal distance in equal time
interval
➢ Non-uniform Motion: Motion in which the body covers unequal
distance in equalinter of time
Topic:-9
➢ Light: Light is the natural agent that stimulates sight and makes things
visible.
➢ Light is classified into two:
➢ Emission of light: Classifying objects on the basis of emission of light.
➢ Luminous Objects: Objects that emit their own light.
Example: sun, electric torch firefly, etc
➢ Non-luminous Objects: Objects that do not emit their own light but are
visible due to light falling on them. Example: moon, chair, table, etc.
➢ Transparent: Objects or materials through which light can pass totally
Example: glass, water, air, etc.
➢ Translucent: Objects that allow light to pass through them partially.
Example:- butter paper, tissue paper, etc
➢ Opaque:- Objects that do not allow light to pass through
them. Example:- book, brick, etc
➢ Shadow: Region without light that forms behing an object kept in the
path of light. Opaque object cast a dark shadow. Translucent objects
produce a weak shadow. Transparent objects do not cast a shadow at
all.
Types of shadow:
➢ Due to smaller light source: Only one dark shadow is formed and this
is known as umbra.
➢ Due to larger light source: Two shadows are formed-a dark one in the
centre and a light one on the outside. Dark shadow is called umbra and
 the faint or lighter shadow is called penumbra.
➢ Eclipse: A shadow formed in space that makes the sun or the moon
invisible for some time
➢ Solar eclipse: The moon comes between the sun and the earth, so that
the earth darkens during the day
➢ Lunar eclipse: The moon and the sun are in a straight line such that the
earth is in the between the sun and the moon, the shadow of the earth
falls on moon and the moon cannot be seen
➢ Reflection of light: The process of sending back the light rays which
fall on the surface of an object. Silver metal is one of the best reflector
of light.
Topic:-10
➢ Electricity: It is a flow of electric current.
➢ Electric Current: The Electric current flows around by Electric Circuit
➢ Electric Circuit: In a closed electric circuit, the electric current passes
from one terminal of the electric cell to the other terminal.
➢ Circuit Diagram: It is a symbolic representation of the electric circuit.
➢ Component of Electricity:
➢ Connecting wires: Help to conduct the electric current and complete
the circuit.
➢ Bulb: Lights up when an electric current flows through it. An electric
bulb has a filament that is connected to its terminals. An electric bulb
glows when electric current passes through it.
➢ Switch: Switch is a simple device that is used to either break the
electric circuit or to complete it When a switch is on, a gap in the circuit
is bridge by a conducting material through which the current flows.
➢ Electric cell: An electric cell has two terminals; one is called positive
(+ve) while the other s negative (-ve), Connecting wires, bulb, switch
and electric cell is used in Torch, Battery, LED (Light Emitting Diode),
etc.
➢ Electric current is carried by Conductor
➢ Conductor: Materials that allow electic current to pass through them.
All metals are good conductors of electricity. Carbon is the only non-
metal which is a good conductor of electricity
➢ Electric current is stopped by Insulators.
➢ Insulators: Materials which do not allow electric current to pass
 through the Plastic, rubber, wood, glass, polythene, PVC, etc.
Topic:-11
➢ Magnets: Materials that attract iron. Natural magnet is called
Iodestone or magnetite
➢ Magnetite is a natural magnet
➢ Magnet attracts materials like iron, nickel, cobalt These are called
magnetic materials.
➢ Materials that are not attracted towards magnet are called non-
magnetic.
➢ A freely suspended magnet always aligns in N-S direction.

Classification of substances based on attraction to magnets:

➢ Magnetic Substances: Materials which get attracted towards magnets.
Example: copper, iron, nickel, etc.
➢ Non-magnetic Substances: Materials which do not get attracted
towards magnets.
Example: wood, paper, plastic and most metals.
➢ Methods to make Magnet:
➢ Single Touch Method: A piece of iron or steel can be magnetized by
strocking it
➢ several times with a magent in one direction.
➢ Double Touch Method: Opposite poles of two bar magnets are brought
together in the middle and then moved from the middle in the opposite
directions to each other
➢ Using Electric Current: The bar to be magnetized is placed inside the
coils of a conductor and current is passed through these coils of wire.
Properties of Magnet
➢ A magnet has two poles-north pole and south pole
➢ Similar poles repel each other
➢ Opposite poles attract each other
➢ Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
➢ Applications of Magnet:
➢ Compass needle: It points north-south because the earth is also a giant
magnet. The
➢ compass lines up with the earth's magnetic field
➢ Used in factories for lifting heavy masses of iron like scrap iron.
 ➢ Used by surgeons in hospitals to remove steel splinters from the
wounds.
➢ Used in the construction of telephones, electric bells, etc.
➢ Used to separate iron and steel from non-magnetic materials.
➢ Rainwater Harvesting: Method of collecting rainwater and storing it
for use during scarcity. It can be used for several purposes including
drinking, washing, gardening flushing, etc.
➢ Water vapour gets added to air by evaporation and transpiration.
➢ The water vapour in the air condenses to form tiny droplets of water,
which appear as clouds. Many tiny water droplets come together and
fall down as rain, snow or hail.
➢ Rain, hail and snow replenish water in rivers, lakes, ponds, wells and
soil.
➢ Excessive rains may cause floods while lack of it for long periods may
cause droughts.
➢ The amount of usable water on earth is limited so it needs to be used
carefully.
Topic:-12
Air Around Us
➢ Air: The invisible gaseous substance surrounding the earth, a mixture
mainly of oxygen and nitrogen.
➢ The blanket of air that surround the earth is called atmosphere.
➢ Air is found everywhere. We cannot see air, but we can feel it
➢ Air in motion is called wind.
➢ Air occupies space
➢ Air is present in water and soil.
➢ Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and
a few other gases.
➢ Some dust particles may also be present in it.
➢ Atmosphere is essential for life on earth.
➢ Aquatic animals use dissolved air in water for respiration.
➢ Plants and animals depend on each other for exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide from
Constituent of Air:
➢ Nitrogen: Plants need nitrogen to grow
 ➢ Oxygen: Used by all living things to respire and help to burn things.
➢ Carbon dioxide: Plants and animals consume oxygen and produce
carbon dioxide during respiration. It is used by green plants for
photosynthesis. It is released on burning.
➢ Water Vapour: Formed due to evaporation of water. Amount of water
vapour present in the air is called humidity. Varies from place to place
and also in the same place during day and night.
➢ Dust and Smoke: Smoke contains a few gases and fine dust particles.
It is very harmful.
➢ Presence of dust particles in air varies from time to time and from
place to place.
Importance of Air:
➢ Air aids burning.
➢ Air is needed for breathing.
➢ Plants need air to make food.
➢ Moving air is called wind. The wind makes the windmill rotate
➢ Air help in quick evaporation of sweat that helps in keeping us cool.

Topic:-13
Garbage in garbage out
➢ Waste: A material that has no longer any value to the person who is
responsible for it
➢ Source of Waste:
➢ Domestic Wastes: garbage, rubbish, excreta, ashes are domestic
wastes.
➢ Industrial wastes: wastes produced by industries. The common
industrial wastes are smoke, plastic, objects, glass, fly ash, etc.
➢ Agricultural wastes: common agricultural wastes are rice husk, dried
stems and straw, weeds and cattle waste
➢ Commercial wastes: wastes generated from commercial
establishments such as shops, malls, stores restaurants, hotels, printing
press, auto-repair shops, medical facilities
Type of wastes:
➢ Biodegradable wastes: Wastes which can be broken down through the
 action of microorganisms into their simple constituents.
Example: plant products, organic wastes, domestic refuse and
animal wastes.
➢ Non-biodegradable wastes: Wastes which cannot be disintegrated by
action of microorganisms and remains unaffected from decomposition.
Example: plastics, glass, metal, scraps, etc.
➢ Plastics: Many things are made up of plastics like bags, shoes, bottles,
pipes, pens, etc.
➢ It cannot be converted into less harmful substances by composting.
Effect of Plastics
➢ Burning emits poisonous gases which cause health problems
➢ Foods thrown in plastic bags are eaten by stray animals which can lead
to death.
➢ Carelessly thrown plastic bags choke sewer system
➢ Food stored in bad quality plastics can be harmful.
Management of Plastics:
➢ Do not throw plastics here and there after use
➢ Do not burn plastic bags and other plastic items
➢ Use paper or cloth bags in place of plastic bags.
➢ Educate friends and family members about the proper disposal of
plastics.
➢ Management and Disposal of Waste 3R's - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. It
means the reduce waste production, reuse of materials and recycle and
reprocessing of waste materials for making new products
➢ Landfills or Composting: Converting plant and animal waste including
that from kitchen, into manure, is called composting. Low lying open
areas to deposit biodegradable waste
➢ Vermi-composting: Method of preparing compost with the help of red
worms. Excreta of the worms make the compost very rich in nutrients.
➢ Food stored in bad quality plastics can be harmful.
➢ Management of Plastics:
➢ Do not throw plastics here and there after use
➢ Do not burn plastic bags and other plastic items
➢ Use paper or cloth bags in place of plastic bags.
➢ Educate friends and family members about the proper disposal of
plastics.
 ➢ Management and Disposal of Waste 3R's - Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
➢ It means the reduce waste production, reuse of materials
➢ and recycle and reprocessing of waste materials for making new
products
➢ Landfills or Composting: Converting plant and animal waste including
that from kitchen, into manure, is called composting. Low lying open
areas to deposit biodegradable waste
➢ Vermi-composting: Method of preparing compost with the help of red
worms. Excreta of the worms make the compost very rich in nutrients.
➢ Landfill is an area where the garbage collected from a city or town is
dumped.
➢ The area is later converted into a park.
➢ Paper can be recycled to get useful products.
➢ Plastics cannot be converted into less harmful substances by the
process of composting.
➢ We need to generate less waste and find ways of dealing with the
increasing amount of garbage in our surroundings.
PART-2
Topic:-14
NUTRITION IN PLANTS:
➢ Nutrition: It is the mode of taking food by an organism and its
utilization by the body.
➢ Nutrients: The components of food that provide nourishment to the
body.
➢ All organisms take food and utilize it to get energy for the growth and
maintenance of their bodies.
➢ Green plants synthesis their food themselves by the process of
photosynthesis. They are Autotrophs.
➢ Photosynthesis: Green plants prepare their own food with the help of
carbon dioxide and water taken from the environment in presence of
sunlight called chlorophyll (found in green plants) for the manufacture
of food. This process is known as photosynthesis.
➢ Plants use simple chemical substances like carbon dioxide, water and
minerals for the synthesis of food.
➢ Chlorophyll and sunlight are the essential requirements for
 photosynthesis.
➢ Complex chemical substances such as carbohydrates are the products
of photosynthesis.
➢ Solar energy is stored in the form of food in the leaves with the help of
chlorophyll.
➢ Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis.
➢ Oxygen released in photosynthesis is utilized by living organisms for
their survival.
➢ Fungi derive nutrition from dead, decaying matter. They are
saprotrophs. Plants like Cuscuta are parasites. They take food from the
host plant.
➢ A few plants and all animals are dependent on others for their nutrition
and are called heterotrophs
➢ Parasitic: Organisms that live on the body of other organisms.
➢ All parasitic plants feed on other plants as either:
➢ Partial Parasites: Obtain some of their nutrition from the host, e.g.
painted cup
➢ Total Parasites: dependent completely on the host for nutrition, e.g.
mistletoe.
➢ Saprophytic: Organisms that obtain nutrition from dead and decaying
plant and animal matter
➢ Mushrooms, moulds and certain types of fungi and bacteria.
➢ Insectivorous Plants: Green plants which obtain their nourishment
partly from soil atmosphere and partly from small insects. Example:
pitcher plant, bladderwort, and venutrap
➢ Symbiosis: Mode of nutrition in which two different individuals
associate with each other fulfill their requirement of food.
➢ Lichens found on tree trunks is the association between alga and
fungus. Alga obtains from fungus and it in turn obtains food from algae.
Nutrition in Animals
➢ Classification based on Eating Habits
➢ Herbivorous: animals that obtain their food only from plants.
Example: cow, sheep, goat, deer, elephant, kangaroo, giraffe, etc.
➢ Carnivorous: Animals that obtain their food by killing other animals.
They never eat
➢ plants. Example: tiger, lizard, lion, etc.
➢ Omnivorous: Animals consume plants as well as other animals as their
food.
➢ Example: bear, dog, human being, etc.
➢ Parasites: Organisms that obtain their food from other animals either
by living inside
➢ (endoparasites) or outside (ectoparasites) their body.
Example: tapeworm and roundworm (inside body), tick and lice
(outside body)
➢ Scavengers: Animals which feed on the remains of dead animals
preyed by predators.
➢ Example: vulture, crows, jackal, etc.
➢ Animal nutrition includes nutrient requirement, mode of intake of food
and its utilization in the body
➢ The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and
secretory glands. It consists of the
➢ i)buccal cavity
➢ ii) oesophagus,
➢ iii) stomach,
➢ iv)small intestine,
➢ v)large intestine ending in rectum
➢ vi)anus.
➢ The main digestive glands which secrete digestive juices are
➢ The salivary glands, the liver and the pancreas.
➢ The stomach wall and the wall of the small intestine also secrete
digestive juices.
➢ The modes of feeding vary in different organisms.
➢ Nutrition is a complex process involving
ingestion,
digestion,
absorption,

assimilation and
egestion

Digestion of carbohydrates, like starch, begins in the buccal cavity.

The digestion of protein starts in the stomach. The bile secreted from
the liver, the pancreatic juice from the pancreas and the digestive juice
 from the intestinal wall complete the digestion of all components of
food in the small intestine. The digested food is absorbed in the blood
vessels from the small intestine
➢ The absorbed substances are transported to different parts of the body.
Water and some salts are absorbed from the undigested food in the
large intestine
➢ The undigested and unabsorbed residues are expelled out of the body
as faeces through the anus.
➢ The grazing animals like cows, buffaloes and deer are known as
ruminants. They quickly ingest, swallow their leafy food and store it in
the rumen. Later, the food returns to the mouth and the animal chews it
peacefully
➢ Amoeba ingests its food with the help of its false feet or pseudopodia.
The food is digested in the food vacuole. It pushes out finger-like
pseudopodia which engulf the prey.

Heat
➢ Heat: It is a form of energy, which makes any object hot or cold.
➢ Temperature: Our sense of touch is not always a reliable guide to the
degree of hotness of an object.
➢ Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness of an object.
➢ Thermometer is a device used for measuring temperatures.
➢ Heat is the cause of temperature
➢ Clinical thermometer is used to measure our body temperature. The
range of this thermometer is from 35°C to 42°C. For other purposes, we
use the laboratory thermometers.
➢ The range of these thermometers is usually from-10°C to 110°C.
➢ The normal temperature of the human body is 37°C
➢ In solids, generally, the heat is transferred by conduction. In liquids
and gases the heat is transferred by convection. No medium is required
for transfer of heat by radiation.
➢ The materials which allow heat to pass through them easily are
conductors of heat.
➢ The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are
called insulators.
➢ Clinical Thermometer: It is a thermometer used to measure the
 temperature of our body. It consists of a long, narrow, uniform glass
tube with a bulb containing mercury at one end.
➢ There is a kink near the bulb. It reads a range of temperatures from
35°C to 42°c
➢ Laboratory Thermometer: It is a thermometer used to measure the
temperature of objects other than our body. It consists of a column of
mercury enclosed in a glass casing. The column is continuous without
any kink. It measures a range of temperature from -10°C to110°C
➢ Sea Breeze: During the day, the land heats up faster than the sea.
➢ Warm air above the land rises and colded air from sea takes its place
➢ Warm air from the land moves towards the sea to compete the cycle
➢ This produces a sea breeze from the sea to the land.
➢ Land Breeze: At night the land cools faster than sea.
➢ The warm air above the sea rises.
➢ This warm air is replaced by colder air from the land producing a land
breeze
➢ Transfer of Heat: Heat flows from a hotter object to a colder object
until both objects reach the same temperature.
➢ The heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a
lower temperature. There are three ways in which heat can flow from
one object to another. These are conduction, convection and radiation.
➢ Conduction: It is the process by which heat is transferred from the
hotter end to the colder and end of an object.
➢ Convection: It is the flow of heat through a fluid from places of higher
temperature to places of lower temperature by movement of the fluid
itself.
➢ Radiation: It is the mode of transfer of heat in which energy is directly
transferred from one place to another. It does not need any material
medium
➢ Dark-coloured objects absorb radiation better than the light-coloured
objects. That is the reason we feel more comfortable in light-coloured
clothes in the summer.
➢ Woollen clothes keep us warm during winter. It is so because wool is
a poor conductor of heat and it has air trapped in between the fibres.
Topic:-15
Acids, Bases and Salts:s
➢ There are three types of Substances: Acids, Bases and Indicators.
➢ Acids: Acids are sour in taste.
➢ They are corrosive in nature. A concentrated acid cuts through clothes
and eats away the wool. If it falls on the skin, it can cause burns.
➢ They are good conductors of electricity, as they allow the passage of
electric current through them.
Types of Acids:
➢ Mineral Acids: These are acids prepared from minerals present in the
earth's crust.
➢ Organic Acids: These are acids produced by plants and animals
(exception, hydrochloric acid)
➢ Weak Acids: These do not dissociate completely in solution. Example:
nitric acid, sulphuric acid
➢ Strong Acids: These dissociate completely in solution. Example:
tartaric acid, lactic acid
➢ Neutralization: It is the reaction between an acid and a base which
results in formation of salt and water.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water. Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
➢ Neutralization in Everyday Life
➢ Indigestion: Too much acid in stomach causes indigestion. It is
neutralized by taking an antacid like milk of magnesia.
➢ Ant sting: When an ant bites, it injects formic acid into the skin. The
effect is neutralized by rubbing moist baking soda (sodium hydrogen
carbonate) or calamine (containing zinc carbonate)
➢ Soil treatment: When the soil is too acidic, it is neutralized by treating
with quicklime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide)
➢ Acid turns blue litmus red. Bases turn red litmus blue
➢ Substances which are neither acidic nor basic are called neutral
Solutions of substances that show different colour in acidic, basic and
neutral solutions are called indicators.
➢ An acid and a base neutralize each other and form a salt. A salt may be
acidic, basic or neutral in nature
➢ Bases: Bases are bitter in taste and soapy to touch.
➢ Two types of Bases:
➢ (i) Weak Bases: These naturally produce less hydroxide ions in
solution.
Eg:-magnesium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide
 ➢ Strong Bases: These produce more number of hydroxide ions on
dissolving in water
Eg:- caustic soda, caustic potash.
➢ (ii) Indicators: It is special chemical that changes its colour to indicate
the presence of a chemical substance
➢ It is used to confirm the presence of an acid, a base or a neutral
solution.
Classification of Indicators:
➢ Natural Indicators:
➢ Litmus: It is extracted from lichens. It is available in the form of strips
of paper or in the form of a solution.
➢ Turmeric: It remains yellow in neutral and acidic solutions but turns
red in alkaline solutions.
➢ China rose: It turns acidic solutions to dark pink (magenta) and basic
solution to green
➢ Red cabbage: It turns acidic solutions to red and basic solutions to
blue.
Other Indicators:
➢ Methyl Orange: It gives pinkish red colour with acidic solutions and
yellow colour with bases.
➢ Phenolphthalein: It is an acid-base indicator. It is colourless in acidic
solutions but it turns pink in alkali solutions.
Topic:-16
Physical and Chemical Changes
➢ Changes can be of two types, physical and chemical.
➢ Physical changes are changes in the physical properties of substances.
No new substances are formed in these changes. These changes may be
reversible.
Example: dissolution of sugar in water, glowing of an electric
bulb, tearing of paper
➢ Chemical Changes are changes in which the composition and chemical
properties of the substance get changed. In chemical changes new
substances are produced. This change is permanent and irreversible.
Example: burning of a candle, formation of curd from milk, ripening of
fruits.
➢ Chemical Reactions in Every day Life
 ➢ Rusting of Iron: Rust is a reddish-brown flaky substance that forms on
the surface of iron objects after the process of rusting.
➢ Cooking of food: Cooking causes breakdown of complex molecules of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins into smaller molecules
➢ It is regarded as a decomposition reaction. Cooked food is easier to
digest than uncooked food
➢ Decay of Organic Substances: Microorganisms like fungi and bacteria
produce enzymes which break down complex organic compounds into
smaller substances.
➢ It is also regarded as a decomposition reaction.
➢ Prevention of Rusting:
By Painting
By Oiling and greasing
By Chromium plating
By Galvanizing
By Alloying
➢ Some substances can be obtained in pure state from their solutions by
crystallization.
Topic:-17
Weather Climate and Adaptations to Climate
➢ Weather: Weather is the day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a
place influenced by factors like humidity, temperature, wind speed, etc.
➢ Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere and
is measured by a hygrometer Sun causes all weather changes.
➢ Climate: It is the average weather conditions at a specific place over a
much longer period of time.
➢ Factor affecting climate:
i) Amount of sunshine
ii) Whether the region is hilly or a plain
iii) Distance from the sea
iv) Direction of prevailing winds from the sea side brings rain to coastal
areas and dry weather to inland areas
➢ v) Ocean currents.
➢ vi)Distance from the equator
➢ Adaptations to Climate: The features and habits that help animals to
live in a habitat are called adaptations.
 ➢ Three regions are classified according to adaptation
i) Polar Regions: Polar regions have extreme climate. Sun does not rise
at poles for 6 months and does not set for the other 6 months.
➢ ii)Tropical Rainforest: Have hot summers and plenty of rainfall. Days
and nights are almost equal in length throughout the year
➢ iii) Desert: Have extreme climate. Receive less rainfall and large
amount of sunlight.
➢ Migration: t is the mass movement of animals, mostly birds, from
colder places to warmer regions to escape the cold, to breed or due to
shortage of food.
➢ Birds are guided by the sun during the day and the stars at night
Eg:- Siberian crane comes to India from Siberia every year
Topic:-18
Winds Strong and Cyclone:
Air:- The invisible gaseous substance surrounding the earth, a mixture
mainly of oxygen and nitrogen.
➢ Properties of Air:
➢ i)Air around us exerts pressure
➢ ii) Air expands on heating and contracts on cooling.
➢ Warm air rises up, whereas comparatively cooler air tends to sink
towards the earth's surface.
➢ As warm air rises, air pressure at that place is reduced and the cooler
air moves to that place.
➢ Wind: The moving air is called wind. Air moves from region of high
air pressure to region of low air pressure
➢ Types of Wind
➢ Wind Currents: Wind currents are generated due to uneven heating on
earth
➢ Uneven heating on the earth is the main cause of wind movements.
➢ Thunderstorms: Storm with thunder and lightening along with rain.
➢ Winds carrying water vapour bring rain.
➢ High-speed winds and air pressure difference can cause cyclones.
➢ It has become easier to monitor cyclones with the help of advance
technology like satellites and radars.
➢ Self-help is the best help. Therefore it is better to plan in advance and
be ready with defence against any approaching cyclone.
 ➢ The following flow chart will help you to understand the phenomena
that lead to the formation of clouds and falling of rain and creation of
storms and cyclones

Topic:-19
Soil
➢ Soil is the uppermost crust that covers the earth. It is a mixture of rock
particles and humus.
➢ Soil is important for life on the earth.
➢ Formation of Soil:
➢ i) Soil is formed by weathering or disintegration of parent rocks.
➢ ii) Physical weathering is degradation of rocks by physical agents like
water, ice, wind, sun, etc.
➢ iii) Chemical weathering is chemical decomposition of rocks
➢ iv) Biological weathering s decomposition of parent rocks by bacteria
and microorganisms
➢ Soil Profile: It is the vertical section of soil from the ground surface to
the parent rock. Soil profile is a section through different layers of the
soil, Various layers are called horizons.
➢ Constituents of Soil: Soil consists of both living and non-living matter.
These constituents
➢ make the soil fertile
➢ Types of Soil: Soil is of different types: clayey, loamy and sandy
➢ Sandy soil: It contains soil particles with a diameter of 0.2 to 2.0 mm.
It comprises of around 60% sand along with some clay. It has very low
water retention capacity. It is not rich in humus.
➢ Clayey soil: It contains soil particles with a diameter of less than 0.2
mm. It has an excellent water retention capacity and air circulation is
sufficient.
➢ Loamy soil: It contains a good mixture of sand, clay and humus. It has
a good water retention
➢ capacity and air circulation is sufficient.
➢ Percolation rate of water is different in different types of soil. It is
highest in the sandy soil and least in the clayey soil.
➢ Different types of soils are used to cultivate different types of crops.
Clay and loam are suitable for growing wheat, gram and paddy. Cotton
is grown in sandy loam soil.
 ➢ Soil holds water in it, which is called soil moisture. The capacity of a
soil to hold water is important for various crops.
➢ Clayey soil is used to make pots, toys and statues.

Topic:-20
Respiration in Organisms:
➢ Respiration is essential for survival of living organisms. It releases
energy from the food.
➢ The oxygen we inhale is used to breakdown glucose into carbon
dioxide and water. Energy is released in the process.
➢ The breakdown of glucose occurs in the cells of an organism (cellular
respiration)
➢ During heavy exercise when the supply of oxygen to our muscle cells
is insufficient, food breakdown is by anaerobic respiration.
➢ Types of Respiration
➢ External Respiration: Process in which oxygen is taken inside the
body and carbon dioxide is given out. It is also called breathing.
➢ External Respiration
➢ Respiration in Plants: Leaves have pores called stomata for gaseous
exchange by diffusion.
➢ Stems have openings called lenticels for gaseous exchange by
diffusion. Roots have Stomatal pores for gaseous exchange of oxygen
dissolved in soil water Respiration in Animals: Respiration in animals
are vary according to their character like
Earthworm: through their skin
Insect: through entire body surface
Fish: respire through their gills
Frogs: through its thin, moist and smooth skin when in water and
by lungs when in land
➢ Respiration in Humans: Inhaled air passes through nostrils into nasal
cavity and then into lungs through windpipe.
➢ Breathing is a part of the process of respiration during which an
organism takes in the oxygen-rich air and gives out air rich in carbon
dioxide. The respiratory organs for the exchange of gases vary in
different organisms.
 ➢ During inhalation, our lungs expand and then come back to the
original state as the air moves out during exhalation.
➢ Increased physical activity enhances the rate of breathing.
➢ In animals like cow, buffalo, dog and cat the respiratory organs and
the process of breathing are similar to those in humans.
Topic:-21
Transportation in Animals and Plants:
➢ In most animals the blood that circulates in the body distributes food
and oxygen to different cells of the body. It also carries waste products
to different parts of the body for excretion.
➢ Circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels.
➢ In humans, blood flows through arteries and veins and the heart acts as
a pumping organ Blood is the fluid which flows in blood vessels.
➢ It transport substance like digested food from the small intestine too
the other parts of the body Blood consists of plasma, RBC, WBC and
platelets. Blood is red due to the presence of a red pigment,
haemoglobin.
➢ The human heart beats about 70n80 times per minute in an adult
person. This is called heart rate
➢ Arteries carry blood from the heart to all parts of the body
➢ Veins carry blood from all parts of the body back to the heart.
➢ Removal of waste products from the body is called excretion.
➢ Excretory system of humans consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a
urinary bladder, and urethra.
➢ Salts and urea are removed along with water as sweat.
➢ Fish excrete waste substances such as ammonia which directly
dissolve in water
➢ Birds, insects and lizard excrete uric acid in semi-solid form.
➢ Water and mineral nutrients are absorbed by roots from the soil.
➢ Nutrients are transported along with water to the entire plant via the
vascular tissue called xylem.
➢ The vascular tissue for the transport of food to the various parts of the
plant is phloem.
➢ A lot of water is lost by plants in the form of vapour through stomata
during transpiration.
➢ Transpiration generates a force which pulls up water absorbed by the
 roots from the soil, to reach the stem and leaves.

Topic:-22
Reproduction in Plants:
➢ All organisms multiply or reproduce their own kind.
➢ In plants there are two modes of reproduction, asexual and sexual.
➢ There are several methods of asexual reproduction such as
fragmentation, budding, spore formation and vegetative propagation.
➢ Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes.
➢ In vegetative propagation new plants are produced from different
vegetative parts such as leaves, stems and roots.
➢ Flower is the reproductive part of a plant
➢ A flower may be unisexual with either the male or the female
reproductive parts.
➢ A bisexual flower has both the male and the female reproductive parts.
➢ The male gametes are found inside the pollen grains and female
gametes are found in the ovule
➢ Pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther
of one flower to the stigma of the same or another flower
➢ Pollination is of two types, self-pollination and cross-pollination.
➢ In self-pollination, pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the
stigma of the same flower. In cross-pollination,
➢ Pollen grains are transferred from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of another flower of the same kind.
➢ Pollination takes place in plants with the help of wind, water and
insects.
➢ The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization.
➢ Fertilized egg is called zygote. Zygote develops into an embryo.
➢ Fruit is the mature ovary whereas ovule develops into a seed, which
contains the developing embryo
➢ Seed dispersal is aided by wind, water and animals.
➢ Seed dispersal helps the plants to prevent overcrowding, avoid
competition for sunlight, water and minerals and invade new habitats.

Topic:-23
Motion and Time
 ➢ Motion: The action or process of moving or being moved.
➢ The distance moved by an object in a unit time is called its speed
➢ Speed of objects help us to decide which one is moving faster than the
other
➢ The speed of an object is the distance travelled divided by the time
taken to cover that distance. Its basic unit is metre per second (m/s)
➢ Periodic events are used for the measurement of time. Periodic motion
of a pendulum has been used to make clocks and watches.
➢ Motion of objects can be presented in pictorial form by their distance-
time graphs.
➢ The distance-time graph for the motion of an object moving with a
constant speed is a straight line
Types of Motion
➢ i) Uniform motion: An object moving along a straight line with a
constant speed is said to be in uniform motion. The average speed is the
same as the actual speed.
➢ ii) Non-Uniform motion: If the speed of an object moving along a
straight line keeps changing, its motion is said to be non-uniform.
➢ Speed: It is the distance covered by an object in a unit time. Basic unit
of speed is m/s.
➢ Total distance covered
➢ Total time taken
➢ Speed-Distance-Time Graph: Motion of objects can be presented in
pictorial form by their distance-time graphs. The distance-time graph
for the motion of an object moving with a
➢ constant speed is a straight line
Topic:-24
Electric Current and its Effects
➢ Electric Current: Flow of electrons through a conductor
➢ It is convenient to represent electric components by symbols. Using
these, an electric circuit can be represented by a circuit diagram.
➢ When an electric current flows through a wire, the wire gets heated. It
is the heating effect of current. This effect has many applications.
➢ Wires made from some special materials melt quickly and break when
large electric currents are passed through them. These materials are
 used for making electric fuses which prevent fires and damage to
electric appliances.
➢ When an electric current flows through a wire, it behaves like a
magnet.
➢ Electric Circuit: A complete pathway of the flow of electric current
➢ Component of Electric Circuit:
➢ Cell: Provides energy for the current to flow
➢ Bulb: Lights ups when an electric current flows through it.
➢ Switch: Keeps the circuit off or on.
➢ Connecting wires: Help to conduct the electric current and complete
the circuit.
Effects of Electric Current:
➢ Heating Effect: The wire gets hot when an electric current passes
through it. This is the heating effect of the electric current. Electric
heater contains a coil of wire called element
➢ which becomes red hot when current passes through it. The amount of
heat produced in a wire depends on its material, length and thickness
➢ Fuse: It is a safety device which prevents damage to electric circuit. It
is made by inserting a short wire into porcelain or insulating material.
➢ MCB: Stands for Miniature Circuit Breakers. These are switches
which automatically turn off when current in a circuit exceeds the safe
limit
➢ Magnetic Effect: When electric current passes through a wire, it
behaves like a magnet.
➢ This is the magnetic effect of the electric current. First observed by
Hans Christian Oersted.
➢ A current carrying coil of an insulated wire wrapped around a piece of
iron is called as an electromagnet.
➢ Electromagnet: An electromagnet is a coil of wire wound on a soft
iron core. Used to separate magnetic material from the junk. Doctors
use tiny electromagnets to take out small pieces of magnetic material
that have accidentally fallen in the eye. Many toys also have
electromagnets inside them.

Topic:-25
Light
➢ Light: It is the natural agent that stimulates sight and makes things
 visible.
➢ Light travels along straight lines.
➢ Any polished or a shining surface acts as a mirror
➢ An image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real image. It
formed by light rays that actually pass through the screen.
➢ An image which cannot be obtained on a screen is called a virtual
image. It is formed by light rays that seem to pass through the screen
➢ The image formed by a plane mirror is erect. It is virtual and is of the
same size as the object.
➢ The image is at the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in
front of it
➢ In an image formed by a mirror, the left side of the object is seen on
the right side in the image, and right side of the object appears to be on
the left side in the image
➢ A concave mirror can form a real and inverted image. When the object
is placed very close to the mirror, the image formed is virtual, erect and
magnified.
➢ A Convex mirror is the mirror that curves out; the reflecting surface is
convex. Image formed is virtual, upright and diminished. Image formed
by a convex mirror is erect, virtual and smaller in size than the object.
➢ A Concave lens is the lens that is thinner at the centre than at the
edges. It is a diverging lens. Image formed is virtual, erect and
diminished
➢ A convex lens can form real and inverted image. When the object is
placed very close to the lens, the image formed is virtual, erect and
magnified. When used to see objects magnified, the convex lens is
called a magnifying glass.
➢ White light is composed of seven colours.
➢ Properties of Light
➢ Rectilinear Propagation of Light: It is the property of light to travel in
a straight line in any direction. The direction of path in which light
make a ray
➢ Reflection of Light: It is the bouncing back of light after striking the
surface of an object.
➢ Shiny smooth surfaces reflect almost all the light.
➢ Dispersion: It is the phenomenon of splitting of white light into its
seven colours. White light is mixture of: Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
 Yellow, Orange and Red (VIBGYOR) colours.

Topic:-26
Water: A Precious Resource
➢ Water is essential for all living beings. There can be no life without it
➢ Water exists in three forms: solid, liquid and vapour
➢ Solid: At poles of earth, snow-covered mountains and glaciers.
➢ Liquids: In oceans, lakes, rivers and underground.
➢ Gaseous: Water vapour in air
➢ Surface water: Sea and oceans, Rivers, Springs, Lakes and Ponds.
➢ Ground water: It is the water that sweeps into the ground through soil
and collects over
➢ non-porous rocks (aquifier). Level of groundwater at any place is
called water table
➢ Groundwater gets recharged by seepage of water into the ground
(infiltration).
➢ Water scarcity:
Increase population decreases open areas which decreases seepage
of rainwater
➢ Increasing industries more water is drawn out from ground.
➢ Agricultural activities irrigation systems fail due to erratic rainfall
which results in increased used of ground water
➢ Uneven distribution of rainfall.
➢ Scanty rainfall.
➢ Deforestation.
➢ Though water is maintained by the water cycle, yet there is an acute
scarcity of water in many parts of the globe.
➢ There is an uneven distribution of water. Most of it has resulted from
human activities
➢ Rapid growth of industries, increasing population, growing irrigation
requirements and
➢ mismanagement are some of the causes for water shortage
➢ We need to be worried about the wastage during the supply of water
through pipes, the leaking taps in buildings and other places
➢ Unnecessary use of water and overdrawing from groundwater should
be avoided. Recharge of water to the ground should be increased.
 ➢ The need of the hour is that every individual uses water economically
➢ Plants wilt and ultimately dry-up if they are not watered for a few
days.

Topic:-27
➢ Forests Our Lifeline
Forest: Large area of land thickly covered with trees, bushes, etc.
We get various products from the forests surrounding us.
Forest is a system comprising various plants, animals and micro-
organisms.
➢ In a forest, trees form the uppermost layer, followed by shrubs. The
herbs form the lowest layer of vegetation.
Different layers of vegetation provide food and shelter for animals,
birds and insects.
The various components of the forest are interdependent on one
another
The forest keeps on growing and changing, and can regenerate In the
forest, there is interaction between soil, water, air and living organisms.
Forests protect the soil from erosion.
Soil helps forests to grow and regene
Forests are the lifeline for the forest-dwelling communities.
Forests influence climate, water cycle and air quality
Importance of Forests:
(i) Provide timber
(ii) Purify air
(iii) Provide shelter
(iv) Prevent soil erosion.
(v) Control floods.
(vi) Noise absorbers.
Independence of Plants and Animals in Forest:
(i) Plants and animals depends on each other to remain alive.
(ii) All organisms interact with each other and their physical environment to
derive energy and survive.
Conservation of Forest:
i) Amount of carbon dioxide in air will increase, resulting in the increase of
earth's temperature
ii) Animals will not get food and shelter
iii) Soil will not hold water, which will cause floods.
(iv) Endanger lives and environment.
Conservation of Forests

Topic:-28
➢ Wastewater Story
Wastewater: Rich in lather, mixed with oil, black-brown water that
goes down the drains from skins, showers, toilets, laundries is called
wastewater
Wastewater is generated in homes, industries, agricultural fields and in
other human activities. This is called sewage
Sewage is a liquid waste which causes water and soil pollution.
Wastewater is treated in a sewage treatment plant.
Treatment plants reduce pollutants in wastewater to a level where
nature can take care of it.
Where underground sewerage systems and refuse disposal systems are
not available, the low cost on-site sanitation system can be adopted.
By-products of wastewater treatment are sludge and biogas.
Open drain system is a breeding place for flies, mosquitoes and
organisms which cause diseases.
We should not defecate in the open. It is possible to have safe disposal
of excreta by low cost methods
Sewage Treatment:
i) Aeration: Air is bubbled through the wastewater while it is continuously
stirred.
ii) Filtration: Aerated water passes through a deep filter of layered sand,
fine gravel and medium gravel.
(iii) Chlorination: To the filtered water chlorine is added and mixed until
water is clear
Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP)
i) Wastewater passes through screens to remove large objects.
ii) To goes to a grit and sand removal tank at low speed.
iii) Water is allowed to settle in large tank
iv) Floating solids are removed with skimmer. Settled solids (sludge) are
removed with scraper,
Clear water is called clarified water
Water is then decomposed by anaerobic bacteria in a tank and air is passed.
Microbes settled at bottom as activated sludge and water from top is
removed.
PART-3
Topic:29
Crop Production & Management:
➢ In order to provide food to our growing population, we need to adopt
certain agricultural practices.
➢ Humans get their food from plants, or animals, or both.
➢ Energy from food is utilized by organisms for carrying out their
various body functions, such as digestion, respiration and excretion.
➢ The climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and rainfall vary
from one region to another.
➢ When plants of the same kind are grown and cultivated at one place
on a large scale, it is called a crop.
➢ The agricultural practices of India are as follows
Basic steps of agricultural practices are
Preparation of soil
Sowing
Adding manure and fertilizers
Irrigation
Protection measures
Harvesting
Storage
Marketing
➢ Crops can be classified on the basis of the season in which they grow.
➢ Rich variety of crops grown in different parts of the country.
➢ The rainy season in India is generally from June to September.
➢ Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut, cotton, etc., are kharif crops.
➢ Pulses and vegetables are grown during summer at many places.
➢ Cultivation of crops involves several activities undertaken by farmers
over a period of time.
➢ Earthworms and microbes are friends of the farmer since they further
turn and loosen the soil and add humus to it.
➢ Turning and loosening of soil is very important for cultivation of
crops.
➢ The loose soil allows the roots to breathe easily even when they go
deep into the soil.
➢ The ploughed field may have big pieces of soil called crumbs.
​The levelling of soil is done with the help of a leveller.
➢ Sometimes, manure is added to the soil before tilling. This helps in
proper mixing of manure with soil.
➢ One pair of bulls and a man can easily operate the plough.
➢ Plough is made of wood and is drawn by a pair of bulls or other
animals.
➢ It has a strong, broad and bent plate of iron is fixed to one of its ends
and works like a blade. It is pulled by animals.
​Modern agriculture:
➢ Farmers prefer to use seeds which give a high yield.
➢ An appropriate distance between the seeds is important to avoid
overcrowding of plants.
➢ Sometimes a few plants have to be removed to prevent overcrowding.
➢ Good quality seeds are clean and healthy seeds of a good variety and
Farmers prefer to use seeds which give a high yield.
➢ Continuous growing of crops makes the soil poorer in certain
nutrients.
➢ Improper or insufficient manuring results in weak plants.
➢ Manure is an organic substance obtained from the decomposition of
plant or animal wastes.
➢ Fertilizers are chemical substances which are rich in a particular
nutrient.
➢ Fertilizers have also become a source of water pollution.
➢ The time and frequency of irrigation varies from crop to crop,
​Soil supplies mineral nutrients to the crop.
➢ These nutrients are essential for the growth of plants.
 ➢ Continuous growing of crops makes the soil poorer in certain
nutrients.
➢ Water is important for proper growth and development of flowers,
fruits and seeds of plants.
➢ Plants contain nearly 90% water.
➢ Nutrients dissolved in water get transported to each part of the plant.
➢ The sources of irrigation are wells, tube wells, ponds, lakes, rivers,
dams and canals.
➢ Modern methods of irrigation help us to use water economically.
➢ The removal of weeds is called weeding.
➢ Special festivals associated with the harvest season are Pongal,
Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya and Bihu.
➢ Threshing is carried out with the help of a machine called ‘combine’
➢ Farmers with small holdings of land do the separation of grain and
chaff by winnowing.
➢ We get cod liver oil from fish which is rich in vitamin D.
➢ Proper storage of grains is necessary to protect them from pests and
microorganisms.
➢ Food is also obtained from animals for which animals are reared. This
is called animal husbandry
Topic:30
Microorganisms – Friends & Foe
➢ Microorganisms are too small and are not visible to the unaided eye.
➢ Microorganisms are found in air, water and in the bodies of plants and
animals.
➢ Diseases like dysentery and malaria are caused by protozoans
➢ whereas typhoid and tuberculosis (TB) are bacterial diseases.
➢ Microorganisms may be unicellular or multicellular.
➢ Major groups of microorganisms are bacteria, fungi, viruses and
protozoas.
➢ Within the groups there are many species.
➢ Microorganisms have been used for the production of alcohol since
ages they are also used in cleaning up of the environment.
​Microorganisms can live in all kinds of environment, ranging from ice
 cold climate to hot springs and deserts to marshy lands.
➢ Microorganisms like amoeba can live alone, while fungi and bacteria
may live in colonies.
➢ Viruses are also microscopic they reproduce only inside the cells of
the host organism, which may be a bacterium, plant or animal.
➢ Viruses are quite different from other microorganisms. They
reproduce only inside the host organism; bacterium, plant or animal
cell.
➢ Curd contains several microorganisms. Of these, the bacterium
Lactobacillus promotes the formation of curd. It multiplies in milk and
converts it into curd.
➢ Microorganisms play an important role in our lives. Some of them are
beneficial in many ways whereas some others are harmful and cause
diseases.
➢ These days a number of antibiotics are being produced from bacteria
and fungi Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are some of the
commonly known antibiotics.
➢ Microorganisms are used for the large scale production of alcohol,
wine and acetic acid (vinegar)
​Antibiotics are even mixed with the feed of livestock and poultry to
check microbial infection in animals. They are also used to control
many plant diseases.
➢ These days vaccines are made on a large scale from microorganisms to
protect humans and other animals from several diseases.
➢ Some bacteria are able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich
soil with nitrogen and increase its fertility. These microbes are
commonly called biological nitrogen fixers.
➢ The microorganisms decompose dead organic waste of plants and
animals converting them into simple substances.
➢ Microorganisms can be used to degrade the harmful and smelly
substances and thereby clean up the environment.
➢ The plant waste is always converted into manure by the action of
microbes.
➢ The disease causing micro organisms are called as Pathogens
​Pathogens enter our body through the air we breathe, the water we
drink or the food we eat.
➢ Pathogens can also get transmitted by direct contact with an infected
person or carried through an animal.
➢ Robert Köch (1876) discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis)
which causes anthrax disease.
➢ Anthrax is a dangerous human and cattle disease caused by a
bacterium.
➢ Several microorganisms cause diseases in plants like wheat, rice,
potato, sugarcane, orange, apple and others. the diseases reduce the
yield of crops.
➢ Food poisoning could be due to the consumption of food spoilt by
some microorganisms.
➢ Microorganisms that grow on our food sometimes produce toxic These
make the food poisonous causing serious illness and even death.
➢ Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are common
preservatives.
➢ Preservatives are also used in the jams and squashes to check their
spoilage.
➢ Common salt has been used to preserve meat and fish for ages.
​Meat and fish are covered with dry salt to check the growth of
​Sugar reduces the moisture content which inhibits the growth of
bacteria which spoil food.
➢ Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles because bacteria
cannot live in such an environment.
➢ These days’ dry fruits and even vegetables are sold in sealed air tight
packets to prevent the attack of Our atmosphere has 78% nitrogen gas.
➢ Some microorganisms reside in the root nodules of leguminous They
can fix nitrogen from air into soil and increase the soil fertility.
➢ Nitrogen is one of the essential constituents of all living organisms as
part of proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic acids and vitamins.
➢ Sometimes nitrogen gets fixed through the action of lightning.
​Certain bacteria and blue green algae present in the soil fix nitrogen
from the atmosphere and convert into compounds of nitrogen.
➢ When plants and animals die, bacteria and fungi present in the soil
convert the nitrogenous wastes into nitrogenous compounds to be used
by plants again.
➢ Certain bacteria convert compounds of nitrogen present in the soil into
 nitrogen gas which is released to the atmosphere.
​When nitrogen is converted into these usable compounds, it can be
utilized by plants from the soil through their root system.
​Nitrogen is then used for the synthesis of plant proteins and other
compounds.
Topic:31
Synthetic, Fibers & Plastic
➢ The clothes which we wear are made of Fabrics are made from fibres
obtained from natural or artificial
➢ Fibres are also used for making a large variety of household articles.
➢ A synthetic fibre is also a chain of small units joined together. Each
small unit is a chemical substance.
➢ Synthetic fibres find uses ranging from many household articles like
ropes, buckets, furniture, containers, etc. to highly specialized uses in
aircrafts, ships, spacecraft, healthcare, etc.
➢ Many such small units combine to form a large single unit called a
Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, for example, is a polymer called
cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a large number of glucose units.
➢ Depending upon the types of chemicals used for manufacturing
synthetic fibres, they are named as Rayon, Nylon, Polyester and
Acrylic.
➢ Rayon is obtained from a natural source, wood pulp, yet it is a man-
made fibre. It is cheaper than silk and can be woven like silk fibres.
➢ Rayon is mixed with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed with wool to
make carpets.
➢ Nylon is another man-made fibre.
➢ In 1931, nylon was made without using any natural raw material (from
plant or animal). It was prepared from coal, water and air.
➢ We use many articles made from nylon, such as socks, ropes, tents,
toothbrushes, car seat belts, sleeping bags, curtains etc.
​Nylon is also used for making parachutes and ropes for rock climbing.
➢ Polyester is another synthetic fibre.
➢ Terylene is a popular polyester. It can be drawn into very fine fibres
that can be woven like any other yarn.
➢ PET is a very familiar form of polyester. It is used for making bottles,
utensils, films, wires and many other useful products.
➢ Esters are the chemicals which give fruits their smell.
➢ Polycot is a mixture of polyester and cotton.
➢ Polywool is a mixture of polyester and wool.
➢ The wool obtained from natural sources is quite expensive, whereas
clothes made from acrylic are relatively cheap.
➢ Synthetic fibres possess unique characteristics which make them
popular dress materials they dry up quickly, are durable, less expensive,
readily available and easy to maintain.
➢ The different types of fibres differ from one another in their strength,
water absorbing capacity, nature of burning, cost, durability, etc.
➢ Plastic is also a polymer like the synthetic fibre.
➢ All plastics do not have the same type of arrangement of units.
➢ In some it is linear, whereas in others it is cross-linked.
➢ Plastic can be recycled, reused, coloured, melted, rolled into sheets or
made into wires.
➢ Polythene is an example of a plastic. It is used for making commonly
used polythene bags.
➢ Thermoplastics are used for manufacturing toys, combs and various
types of containers.
➢ Plastics do not react with water and air. They are not corroded easily.
That is why they are used to store various kinds of material
➢ Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and electricity it is used for
making electrical switches handles of various utensils, etc.
➢ Melamine is a versatile material. It resists fire and can tolerate heat
better than other plastics.
​Melamine is used for making floor tiles, kitchenware and fabrics which
resist fire.
➢ Plastics are generally cheaper than metals. They are widely used in
industry and for household articles.
➢ Plastics are poor conductors of heat and Plastic takes several years to
decompose, it is not environment friendly.
➢ The biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes should be collected
separately and disposed off separately. On burning plastics release
poisonous substances
 ➢ As a responsible citizen remember the 4 R Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
and Recover.
Topic:32
Materials: metals and non-metals
➢ Metals are lustrous whereas non-metals have no lustre.
➢ Metals can be distinguished from non-metals on the basis of their
physical and chemical properties.
➢ Malleability is a characteristic property of metals.
➢ Iron rod, nail and copper wire are good conductors while rolled
sulphur piece and coal piece are poor conductors.
➢ The things made of metals produce ringing sound when struck hard.
➢ The materials other than metals are not sonorous.
➢ Materials are hard, lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous and good
conductors of heat and electricity.
➢ In contrast, materials like coal and sulphur are soft and dull in
appearance.
➢ Coal and sulphur break down into powdery mass on tapping with
hammer.
➢ Metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can be cut with a knife.
➢ Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room
temperature.
➢ Rust formed by the reaction between iron, oxygen and water.
➢ When a copper vessel is exposed to moist air for long, it acquires a
dull green coating. The green material is a mixture of copper hydroxide
and copper carbonate.
➢ Oxide of magnesium is also basic in nature.
➢ In general, metallic oxides are basic in nature.
➢ In a chemical reaction, new substances are formed.
➢ When a substance cannot be broken down further by chemical
reactions, by cooling, heating, or by electrolysis, it is called ‘element’.
➢ When sulphur dioxide is dissolved in water sulphurous acid is formed.
➢ Oxides of non-metals are acidic in nature.
➢ Non-metals do not react with water though they may be very reactive
in air. Such non-metals are stored in water.
 ➢ Metals react with acids and produce metal salts and hydrogen gas.
Generally, non-metals do not react with acids.
➢ Non-metals generally do not react with acids but metals react with
acids and produce hydrogen gas that burns with a ‘pop’ sound.
➢ Copper does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid even on heating
but it react with sulphuric acid.
➢ Metals react with sodium hydroxide to produce hydrogen gas.
➢ Reactions of non-metals with bases are complex.
➢ Zinc is more reactive than copper and iron.
➢ A more reactive metal can replace a less reactive metal, but a less
reactive one cannot replace a more reactive metal.
➢ Metals and non-metals are used widely in everyday life.
➢ Metals are used in making machinery, automobiles, aeroplanes, trains,
satellites, industrial gadgets, cooking utensils, water boilers, etc.
➢ Non-metal essential for our life which all living beings inhale during
breathing, Magnesium is also found in plants.
➢ A sample of an element contains only one kind of atoms.
➢ The atom of an element remains unaffected by physical changes in the
element.
➢ An atom of liquid sulphur would be exactly the same as the atom of
solid or vapour sulphur. There are not more than 92 naturally occurring
elements.
➢ An important classification of elements is in terms of metals and non-
metals. Most of the elements are metals.
➢ A few are metalloids which possess characters of both metals and non-
metals.
Topic:33
Coal & Petroleum
➢ We use various materials for our basic needs.
➢ Some of them are found in nature and some have been made by human
efforts.
➢ Air, water, soil and minerals are obtained from nature and are called
natural resources.
➢ We cannot use all our natural resources forever.
➢ Water a limited resource.
➢ Inexhaustible Natural Resource present in unlimited quantity in nature
and are not likely to be exhausted by human activities.
➢ Sunlight, air are inexhaustible natural resources.
➢ Exhaustible Natural Resources are limited in nature and can be
exhausted by human activities.
➢ Examples of Exhaustible Natural Resources are forests, wildlife,
minerals, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
➢ Exhaustible natural resources like coal, petroleum and natural gas are
formed from the dead remains of living organisms.
➢ Coal is as hard as stone and is black in colour.
➢ Coal is one of the fuels used to cook food.
➢ As coal contains mainly carbon, the slow process of conversion of
dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization.
➢ Coal is also formed from the remains of vegetation therefore it is also
called a fossil fuel.
➢ When heated in air, coal burns and produces mainly carbon dioxide
gas.
➢ Coal is processed in industry to get some useful products such as coke,
coal tar and coal gas.
➢ Coke is a tough, porous and black substance. It is almost pure form of
carbon. Coke is used in the manufacture of steel and in the extraction of
many metals.
➢ Coal tar is a black, thick liquid with unpleasant smell. It is a mixture
of about 200 substances.
➢ Products obtained from coal tar are used in everyday life and in
industry, like synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives and perfumes.
➢ Nowadays, bitumen, a petroleum product, is used in place of coal-tar
for metalling the roads.
➢ Coal gas was used for street lighting for the first time in London
in 1810 and in New York around 1820. Nowadays, it is used as a source
of heat rather than light.
➢ Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resource called
petroleum.
➢ Over millions of years, absence of air, high temperature and high
pressure transformed the dead organisms into petroleum and natural
 gas.
➢ The world’s first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859.
Eight years later, in 1867, oil was stuck at Makum in Assam.
➢ In India, oil is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High and in the river
basins of Godavari and Krishna.
➢ Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has an unpleasant odour. It is a
mixture of various constituents such as petroleum gas, petrol, diesel,
lubricating oil, paraffin wax, etc.
➢ Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum and natural gas.
These are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’.
➢ Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of
fertilizers.
➢ Petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene, paraffin wax, lubricating oil
are obtained by refining petroleum.
➢ Due to its great commercial importance, petroleum is also called
‘black gold’.
➢ Natural gas is stored under high pressure as compressed natural gas
(CNG).
➢ CNG is used for power generation. It is now being used as a fuel for
transport vehicles because it is less polluting. It is a cleaner fuel.
➢ Natural gas is also used as a starting material for the manufacture of a
number of chemicals and fertilizers.
➢ In India, natural gas has been found in Tripura, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra and in the Krishna Godavari delta.
➢ Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels.
➢ Burning of coal and petroleum is a major cause of air pollution.
➢ Coal and petroleum resources are limited. We should use them
judiciously

Topic:34
Combustion and Flame
➢ A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give
 off heat is called combustion. The substance that undergoes combustion
is a fuel.
➢ The fuel may be solid, liquid or gas. Sometimes, light is also given off
during combustion, either as a flame or as a glow.
➢ A combustible substance cannot catch fire or burn as long as its
ignition temperature
➢ The substance which have very low ignition temperature and can
easily catch fire with a flame are called inflammable substances.
➢ Eg: petrol, alcohol, LPG.
➢ For fire involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like
petrol, C02 is the best extinguisher.
➢ There are 3 types of combustion:
➢ Spontaneous, rapid, explosion
➢ Spontaneous combustion : the combustion in which substances starts
burning even without being heated
Eg:- sodium and potassium burns spontaneously in air, even when no
external heat is provided to them.
➢ Rapid combustion: the combustion in which substance being burns
rapidly to produce heat and is called as rapid combustion.
➢ Explosion: this occurs suddenly when a material is heated, liberated a
large amount of gas and producing heat, light and sound.
➢ Flame: There are 3 different zones of flames
➢ Dark zone, luminous zone and non luminous zone.
➢ Non luminous zone of the flame has a high temperature
➢ It has hottest part fuel efficiency.
➢ Fuel efficiency: the amount of heat energy produced on complete
combustion of 1kg of a fuel is called its caloric value of a fuel is
expressed in a unit called kilojoule per kg (kj/kg).
➢ Burning the fuels leads to harmful products.
➢ The use of diesel and petrol as fuels in automobiles is being replaced
by CNG because CNG produces the harmful products in very small
amounts. CNG is a cleaner fuel.

Topic:35
Conservation Of Plants And Animals
 Consequences of Deforestation

➢ Deforestation increases the temperature and pollution level on the

earth.
➢ It increases the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground
water level also gets lowered.
➢ Deforestation and Its Causes
➢ Deforestation means clearing of forests and using that land for other
purposes.
➢ Trees in the forest are cut for , Procuring land for cultivation.,
Building houses and factories., Making furniture or using wood as fuel.
➢ If cutting of trees continues fertility of soil will decrease, the increase
in temperature on the earth disturbs the water cycle and may reduce
rainfall. This could cause droughts.
➢ Fewer trees result in more soil erosion. Removal of the top layer of
the soil exposes the lower, hard and rocky layers, It is called
desertification.
➢ Deforestation also leads to a decrease in the water holding capacity of
the soil. The movement of water from the soil surface into the ground
(infiltration rate) is reduced. So, there are floods.
Conservation of Forest and Wildlife:
➢ To protect our flora and fauna and their habitats, protected areas
called sanctuaries, national parks and biosphere reserves have been
earmarked. Plantation, cultivation, grazing, felling trees, hunting and
poaching are prohibited there.
➢ Areas where animals are protected from any disturbance to them and
their habitat are Sanctuary Areas reserved for wild life where they can
freely use the habitats and natural resources are called National Park
➢ ​Large areas of protected land for conservation of wild life, plant and
animal resources and traditional life of the tribals living in the area
become Biosphere Reserve.
Flora and Fauna
➢ Some animals and plants typically belong to a particular area. The
plants and animals found in a particular area are termed flora and fauna
of that area.
➢ Endemic Species: Endemic species are those species of plants and
 animals which are found exclusively in a particular area. They are not
naturally found anywhere else.
➢ Wildlife Sanctuary: wildlife sanctuaries provide protection and
suitable living conditions to wild animals. where killing (poaching) or
capturing of animals is strictly prohibited. National Park.
➢ National parks are large and diverse enough to protect whole sets of
ecosystems. They preserve flora, fauna, landscape and historic objects
of an area.
➢ Animals whose numbers are diminishing to a level that they might be
extinct are known as the endangered animals.
➢ An ecosystem is made of all the plants, animals and microorganisms
in an area along with non-living components such as climate, soil, river
deltas etc.
➢ Red Data Book is the source book which keeps a record of all the
endangered animals and plants. There are different Red Data Books for
plants, animals and other species.
➢ Migration: Birds who cover long distances to reach another land are
known as migratory birds Migratory birds fly to far away areas every
year during a particular time because of climatic changes.
➢ They fly for laying eggs as the weather in their natural habitat
becomes very cold and inhospitable.
➢ Reforestation: Reforestation is restocking of the destroyed forests by
planting new trees.
Topic:36
Cell Structure And Functions
➢ Discovery of the Cell
➢ Robert Hooke in 1665 observed slices of cork under a simple
magnifying device. Hooke coined the term ‘cell’
The Cell:
➢ Cells in the living organisms, are basic structural units, cells are
assembled to make the body of every organism. The egg of a hen
represents a single cell and is big enough to be seen by the unaided
eye.
➢ Variety in Cell Number, Shape and Size.
➢ There are millions of living organisms. They are of different shapes
and sizes. Their organs also vary in shape, size and number of cells.
➢ Number of Cells: Different groups of cells perform a variety of
functions. Organisms made of more than one cell are called
multicellular organisms.
➢ The single-celled organisms are called unicellular organisms. A
single-celled organism performs all the necessary functions that
multicellular organisms perform.
➢ A single-celled organism, like amoeba, captures and digests food,
respires, excretes, grows and reproduces. Similar functions in
multicellular organisms are carried out by groups of specialised cells
forming different tissues. Tissues, in turn, form organs.
➢ Shape of Cells: The different shapes are related to their specific
functions, cells are round,
​spherical or elongated , spindle shape Cells sometimes are quite long.
➢ Some are branched like the nerve cell or a neuron.
➢ Size of Cells: The size of cells in living organisms may be as small as
a millionth of a metre or may be as large as a few centimeters
➢ Cell Structure and Function: Each living organism has many organs.
Each organ is further made up of smaller parts called tissues. A tissue
is a group of similar cells performing a specific function.
➢ Parts of the Cell: The basic components of a cell are cell membrane,
cytoplasm and nucleus
➢ Cell Membrane: The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the
cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane. The membrane
separates cells from one another and also the cell from the surrounding
medium.
➢ The boundary of the cell is the cell membrane covered by another
thick covering called the cell wall.
➢ Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance between the nucleus and the cell
membrane is called cytoplasm. Various other components, or
organelles, of cells are present in the cytoplasm are mitochondria, golgi
bodies, ribosomes, etc.
➢ Nucleus: The central dense round body in the centre is called the
nucleus. Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane
called the nuclear membrane. This membrane is porous and allows the
 movement of materials between the cytoplasm and the inside of the
nucleus.
➢ Small spherical body in the nucleus is called the nucleolus.
​Nucleus contains thread-like structures called chromosomes.
➢ Nucleus, in addition to its role in inheritance, acts as control centre of
the activities of the cell.
➢ The entire content of a living cell is known as protoplasm. It includes
the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Protoplasm is called the living
substance of the cell.
➢ The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are
termed prokaryotic cells.
➢ The organisms with these kinds of cells are called prokaryotes
bacteria and blue green algae.
➢ The cells, having well organized nucleus with a nuclear membrane
are eukaryotic cells.

Topic:37
Reproduction In Animals
➢ Reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species as it
ensures the continuation of similar kinds of individuals, generation
after generation.
➢ Modes of Reproduction: There are two modes by which animals
reproduce Sexual and Asexual reproduction.
​Sexual Reproduction.
➢ In animals males and females have different reproductive parts or
organs.
➢ Reproductive parts in animals produce gametes that fuse to form a
zygote which develops into a new individual.
➢ This type of reproduction beginning from the fusion of male and
female gametes is called sexual reproduction.
➢ Male Reproductive Organs: The male reproductive organs include a
pair of testes, two sperm ducts and a penis The testes produce the male
 gametes called sperms.
➢ Millions of sperms are produced by a testis, sperms are very small in
size, each has a head, a middle piece and a tail.
➢ Female Reproductive Organs: The female reproductive organs are a
pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and the uterus .
​Ovary produces female gametes called ova. An egg is also a single
cell.
➢ In human beings, a single matured egg is released into the oviduct by
one of the ovaries every month.
➢ Uterus is the part where development of the baby takes place.
➢ Fertilization: The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion
of a sperm and an ovum. When sperms come in contact with an egg,
one of the sperms may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of the egg and
the sperm is called fertilization
➢ During fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse to form a
single nucleus. This results in the formation of a fertilized egg or
zygote
➢ Fertilization which takes place inside the female body is called
internal fertilization. Internal fertilization occurs in many animals
including humans, cows, dogs and hens.
➢ Fertilization in which the fusion of a male and a female gamete takes
place outside the body of the female is called external fertilization.
➢ Development of Embryo: Fertilization results in the formation of
zygote which begins to develop into an embryo The zygote divides
repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells.
➢ The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus for further
development It gradually develops the body parts such as hands, legs,
head, eyes, ears.
➢ The stage of the embryo in which all the body parts can be identified
is called a foetus. When the development of the foetus is complete, the
mother gives birth to the baby.
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals:
➢ Young Ones to Adults:The new individuals which are born or hatched
from the eggs continue to grow till they become adults
​The transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic changes is
 called metamorphosis.
➢ In human beings, body parts similar to those present in the adults are
present from the time of the birth
➢ Asexual Reproduction: Reproduction in which only a single parent is
involved is called asexual reproduction.
➢ New individuals develop from the buds this type of asexual
reproduction is called budding.
➢ In binary fission an animal reproduces by dividing into two
individuals.
➢ Nucleus divides into two nuclei. This is followed by division of its
body into two, each part receiving a nucleus.
➢ Cloning: Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any
other living part, or a complete organism. Cloning of an animal was
successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut and his
colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland. They cloned
successfully a sheep named Dolly.
➢ Dolly was born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be
cloned.
Topic:38
Reaching The Age Of Adolescence
➢ Adolescence and Puberty: Growth begins from the day one is born.
Growing up is a natural process. The period of life, when the body
undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity, is called
adolescence.
➢ Adolescence begins around the age of 11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years
of age. the period of adolescence varies from person to person. changes
mark the onset of puberty.
➢ Changes at Puberty
Increase in Height|: The most conspicuous change during puberty is the
sudden increase in height. At this time the long bones, that is, the
bones of the arms and the legs elongate and make a person tall.
➢ Change in Body Shape:
In boys, the muscles of the body grow more prominently than in the
girls. Thus, changes occurring in adolescent boys and girls are
 different.
➢ Voice Change:
At puberty, the voice box or the larynx begins to grow. Boys develop
larger voice boxes. The growing voice box in boys protruding throat is
called Adam’s apple. In girls the larynx is hardly visible from the
outside because of its small size.
​Generally, girls have a high pitched voice, whereas boys have a deep
voice. In adolescent boys, sometimes, the muscles of the growing voice
box go out of control and the voice becomes hoarse.
➢ Development of Sex Organs:
At puberty, male sex organs like the testes and penis develop
completely. The testes also begin to produce sperms.
​ In girls, the ovaries enlarge and eggs begin to mature. Also ovaries
start releasing mature eggs.
➢ Reaching Mental, Intellectual and Emotional Maturity.
➢ Adolescence is also a period of change in a person’s way of thinking.
Adolescents are more independent than before and are also self
conscious.
➢ Secondary Sexual Characters:
In girls, breasts begin to develop at puberty called and boys begin to
grow facial hair, that is, moustaches and beard. As these features help
to distinguish the male from the female.
➢ Increased Activity of Sweat and Sebaceous Glands.
➢ During puberty the secretion of sweat glands and sebaceous glands
(oil glands) increases. Many young people get acne pimples on skin.
➢ Boys also develop hair on their chest. In both, boys and girls, hair
grows under the arms and in the region above the thighs or the pubic
region.
➢ The changes which occur at adolescence are controlled by hormones.
Hormones are chemical substances. These are secretions from
endocrine glands.
➢ The production of these hormones is under the control of another
hormone secreted from an endocrine gland called pituitary gland.
➢ Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream to reach a
particular body part called target site. The target site responds to the
hormone. There are many endocrine glands or ductless glands in the
 body.
➢ Role of Hormones in Initiating Reproductive Function:
The male hormone or testosterone begins to be released by the testes at
the onset of puberty. This causes changes in boys
​In girls, ovaries begin to produce the female hormone or estrogen
which makes the breasts develop. Milk secreting glands or mammary
glands develop inside the breasts.
➢ Reproductive Phase of Life in Humans:
➢ Adolescents become capable of reproduction when their testes and
ovaries begin to produce gametes. The capacity for maturation and
production of gametes lasts for a much longer time in males than in
females.
➢ In females, the reproductive phase of life begins at puberty (10 to 12
years of age) and generally lasts till the age of approximately 45 to 50
years. The ova begin to mature with the onset of puberty.
➢ One ovum matures and is released by one of the ovaries once in about
28 to 30 days. During this period, the wall of the uterus becomes thick
so as to receive the egg, in case it is fertilised and begins to
develop.This results in pregnancy.
➢ If fertilisation does not occur, the released egg, and the thickened
lining of the uterus along with its blood vessels are shed off. This
causes bleeding in women which is called menstruation. The first
menstrual flow is termed menarche. At 45 to 50 years of age, the
menstrual cycle stops it is termed menopause.
➢ In case the egg is fertilised it begins to divide and then gets embedded
in the uterus for further development.
➢ Sex Determination: Inside the fertilised egg is the instruction for
determining the sex of the baby. All human beings have 23 pairs of
chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells. Two chromosomes out of
these are the sex chromosomes, named X and Y.
➢ When a sperm containing X chromosome fertilises the egg, the zygote
would have two X chromosomes and develop into a female child.
➢ If the sperm contributes a Y chromosome to the egg (ovum) at
fertilisation, the zygote would develop into a male child.
➢ Hormones other than Sex Hormones.
➢ Pituitary also secretes growth hormone which is necessary for the
 normal growth of a person.
➢ Thyroid and adrenals secrete their hormones when they receive orders
from the pituitary through its hormones.
➢ Thyroid gland produce the hormone thyroxine.
➢ Adrenal glands secrete hormones which maintain the correct salt
balance in the blood. insulin in sufficient Adrenals also produce the
hormone adrenalin. It helps the body to adjust to stress when one is
very angry, embarrassed or worried.
➢ The change from larva to adult is called metamorphosis
​Metamorphosis in insects is controlled by insect hormones. In a frog, it
is controlled by thyroxine, the hormone produced by thyroid.
➢ Thyroxine production requires the presence of iodine in water. If the
water in which the tadpoles are growing does not contain sufficient
iodine, the tadpoles cannot become adults.
➢ Reproductive Health: The physical and mental well being of an
individual is regarded as an individual’s health. During adolescence,
balanced diet, personal hygiene and undertake adequate physical
exercise become even more essential as the body is growing.
➢ ​Nutritional Needs of the Adolescents: Adolescence is a stage of rapid
growth and development. Hence the diet for an adolescent has to be
carefully planned.
➢ Balanced diet means that the meals include proteins, carbohydrates,
fats and vitamins in requisite proportions Milk is a balanced food in
itself. Fruits and iron-rich food such as leafy vegetables, jaggery, meat,
citrus,are good for adolescents.
➢ For infants, mother milk provides all the nourishment that they need.
➢ Personal Hygiene: Everyone should have a bath at least once
everyday. It is more necessary for teenagers because the increased
activity of sweat glands sometimes makes the body smelly.
➢ All parts of the body should be washed and cleaned everyday.
➢ Physical exercise: Walking and playing in fresh air keeps the body fit
and healthy. All young boys and girls should take walks, exercise and
play outdoor games.
➢ ​Adolescence is a period of much activity in the body and mind which
is a normal part of growing up Drugs are addictive They harm the body
in the long run, ruin health and happiness.
Topic:39
Force And Pressure
➢ Force:Actions usually results in some kind of change in the motion of
an object.
➢ A push or a pull on an object is called a force. Thus, we can say that
the motion imparted to objects was due to the action of a force.
➢ Forces are due to an Interaction.
➢ An interaction of one object with another object results in a force
between the two objects.
➢ Exploring Forces: Forces applied on an object in the same direction
add to one another.
➢ If the two forces act in the opposite directions on an object, the net
force acting on it is the difference between the two forces.
​Net force on an object is zero if the two forces acting on it in opposite
directions are equal.
➢ A force could be larger or smaller than the other. The strength of a
force is usually expressed by its magnitude.
➢ Force can Change the State of Motion.
➢ A change in either the speed of an object, or its direction of motion, or
both, is described as a change in its state of motion. Thus, a force may
bring a change in the state of motion of an object.
➢ The application of force on an object may change its shape.
➢ State of Motion: The state of motion of an object is described by its
speed and the direction of motion. The state of rest is considered to be
the state of zero speed. An object may be at rest or in motion ; both are
its states of motion.
➢ An object cannot move by itself, it cannot change speed by itself, it
cannot change direction by itself and its shape cannot change by itself.
➢ Contact Forces: Muscular Force: The force resulting due to the action
of is known as the muscular force. Animals also make use of muscular
force to carry out their physical activities and other tasks.
➢ Since muscular force can be applied only when it is in contact with an
object, it is also called a contact force.
➢ Friction: The force responsible for changing the state of motion of
 objects is the force of friction.
➢ The force of friction always acts on all the moving objects and its
direction always opposite to the direction of motion. Since the force of
friction arises.
➢ Non contact forces:
➢ Magnetic force: a magnet can exert a force on another magnet without
being in contact with it.
➢ The force exerted by a magnet is an example of a non contact force so
the force exerted by a magnet on a piece of iron is also a non contact
force.
➢ Gravitational force: objects or things fail towards the earth because it
pulls them. this force is called the force of gravity.
➢ This is an attractive force it acts on all objects.
➢ This force is known as the gravitational force.
➢ Pressure: the force acting on a unit area of a surface is called pressure.
➢ Pressure exerted by liquids and gases: liquids exert pressure on the
walls of the container.
➢ Gases also exert pressure on the walls of their container.
➢ Atmospheric pressure: air is all around us this envelop of air is known
as the atmosphere.
➢ It extends up to many kilometers above the surface of the earth.
➢ The pressure exerted by this air is known as atmospheric pressure.
Topic:40
Friction:
➢ Friction is caused by the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact.
➢ The force of friction always opposes the applied force.
➢ Spring Balance is a device used for measuring the force acting on an
object.
➢ In spring balance stretching of the spring is measured by a pointer
moving on a graduated scale. The reading on the scale gives the
magnitude of the force.
➢ Friction is caused by the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact.
➢ Force of friction will increase if the two surfaces are pressed harder.
➢ The force required to overcome friction at the instant an object starts
 moving from rest is a measure of static friction.
➢ If an object started moving, it would never stop if there were no
friction.
➢ The sliding friction is slightly smaller than the static, any object
started moving, it would never stop if there were no friction.
➢ Friction can also produce heat.
➢ The substances which reduce friction are called lubricants.
​Friction can never be entirely eliminated. No surface is perfectly
smooth. Some irregularities are always there.
➢ To reduce friction in order to increase efficiency. oil, grease or
graphite is applied.
➢ When one body rolls over the surface of another, the resistance to
motion is called the rolling friction. It reduces friction.
​Rolling reduces friction.
➢ It is always easier to roll than to slide a body over another. That is the
reason it is convenient to pull the luggages fitted with rollers.
➢ Fluids exert force of friction on objects in motion through them.
➢ The frictional force exerted by fluids is also called drag.
➢ Fluids exert force of friction on objects in motion through them.
➢ The frictional force on an object in a fluid depends on its speed with
respect to the fluid.
➢ Friction opposes the relative motion between two surfaces in contact.
It acts on both the surfaces.
➢ Friction depends on the nature of surfaces in contact.
​For a given pair of surfaces friction depends upon the state of
smoothness of those surfaces.
➢ Friction depends on how hard the two surfaces press together.
​Static friction comes into play when we try to move an object at rest.
➢ Sliding friction comes with play when an object is sliding over
another.
➢ Sliding friction is smaller than static friction.
​Friction can be increased by making a surface rough.
➢ Friction is important for many of our activities.
➢ The sole of the shoes and the tyres of the vehicle are treaded to
increase friction.
➢ The friction is sometimes undesirable.
 ➢ Friction can be reduced by using lubricants.
➢ When one body rolls over another body, rolling friction comes into
play. Rolling friction is smaller than the sliding friction.
​In many machines, friction is reduced by using ball bearings.
➢ Fluid friction can be minimized by giving suitable shapes to bodies
moving in fluids.
➢ Even those surfaces which appear very smooth have a large number of
minute irregularities on them Irregularities on the two surfaces lock into
one another.
➢ You saw that if you apply the force along the left, friction acts along
the right.
➢ Finally it stops. Have you not seen a moving ball on the ground
stopping after some time? Why do we slip when we step on a banana
peel.
➢ It is difficult to walk on a smooth and wet floor
Topic:41
Sound
➢ Sound plays an important role in our life. It helps us to communicate
with one another.
➢ To and fro or back and forth motion of an object is termed as
vibration.
➢ Sound is produced by vibrations.
➢ The sound cannot travel through vacuum.
➢ sound needs a medium to travel.
➢ Sound can travel through any solid liquid or gas.
➢ In humans, the sound is produced y the voice box or the larynx.
➢ When the lungs force air through the lit, the vocal cords vibrate,
producing sound.
➢ When the vocal cords are tight and thin, the type or quality of voice is
different from that when they are loose and thick.
➢ The vocal cords in men are about 20mm long. In women these are
about 5mm shorter. Children have very short vocal cords.
➢ This is the reason why the voices of men, women and children are
different.
➢ Sound can travel through wood or metal and even through solids.
➢ When sound enters in it, it travels down a canal at the end of which a
thin membrane is stretched tightly. It is called the eardrum.
➢ The eardrum sends vibrations to the inner ear. From there, the signal
goes to the brain. That is how we hear.
➢ The number of oscillations per second is called the frequency of
oscillation. Frequency is expressed in hertz. Its symbol is Hz. A
frequency of 1 Hz is one oscillation per second.
➢ Amplitude and frequency are two important properties of any sound.
➢ To and fro motion of an object is known as vibration. This motion is
also called oscillatory motion.
➢ The loudness of sound depends on its amplitude. When the amplitude
of vibration is large, the sound produced is loud.
➢ When the amplitude is small, the sound produced is feeble.
➢ The frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a sound.
➢ If the frequency of vibration is sound is shrill and has a higher pitch. If
the frequency of vibration is lower, sound has a lower pitch.
➢ Unpleasant sounds are called noise.
➢ The fact is that sounds of frequencies less than about 20 vibrations per
second (20 Hz) cannot be detected by the human ear. Such sounds are
called inaudible.
➢ Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
​In human beings, the vibration of the vocal cords produces sound.
➢ Sound travels through a medium (gas, liquid or solid). It cannot travel
in vacuum.
➢ The eardrum senses the vibrations of sound; it sends the signals to the
brain. This process is called hearing.
➢ The number of oscillations or vibrations per second is called the
frequency of oscillation.
➢ The frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz).A frequency of 1 Hz is one
oscillation per second.
➢ Larger the amplitude of vibration louder is the sound.
➢ Amplitude and frequency are two important properties of any sound.
➢ Higher the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch, and shriller
is the sound.
➢ The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel (dB).
 ​ npleasant sounds are called noise.
U
➢ Excessive or unwanted sounds lead to noise pollution. Noise pollution
may pose health problems for human beings.
➢ A person who is exposed to a loud sound continuously may get
temporary or even permanent impairment of hearing.
➢ Attempts should be made to minimize noise pollution.
​Plantation on the roadside and elsewhere can reduce noise pollution.
➢ Is it possible that the decreasing amount of air in the tumbler had
something to do with decreasing loudness of the ring?
​Indeed, if you had been able to suck all the air in the tumbler, the sound
would stop completely.
➢ Actually, sound needs a medium to travel.
➢ When air has been removed completely from a vessel, it is said that
there is vacuum in the vessel.
➢ The sound cannot travel through vacuum .Does sound travel in liquids.
➢ The shape of the outer part of the ear is like a funnel.
➢ When sound enters in it, it travels down a canal at the end of which a
thin membrane is stretched tightly.
➢ It is called the eardrum.
➢ It performs an important function. To understand what the eardrum
does, let us build a tin can model of the eardrum.
➢ We find that sound can travel through wood or metal. In fact, sound
can travel through any solid.
➢ The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel (dB).
​A whistle has a high frequency and therefore, produces a sound of
higher pitch.
➢ A bird makes a high-pitched sound whereas a lion makes a low-
pitched roar.
➢ However, the roar of a lion is very loud while the sound of the bird is
quite feeble.
➢ The frequency of the voice of a child is higher than that of an adult.
➢ Usually the voice of a woman has a higher frequency and is shriller
than that of a man.
➢ Some animals can hear sounds of frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
Dogs have this ability. The police use high frequency whistles which
dogs can hear but humans cannot. The ultrasound equipment, familiar
 to us for investigating and tracking many medical problems, works at
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
➢ You already know about air pollution. Presence of unwanted gases and
particles in air is called air pollution.
➢ Similarly, presence of excessive or unwanted sounds in the
environment is called noise pollution.
➢ Major causes of noise pollution are sounds of vehicles, explosions
including bursting of crackers, machines, loudspeakers etc.
➢ Television and transistor radio at high volumes, some kitchen
appliances, desert coolers, air conditioners, all contribute to noise
pollution.
➢ The total hearing impairment, which is rare, is usually from birth
itself.
➢ Partial disability is generally the result of a disease, injury or age.
Children with impaired hearing need special care.
➢ By learning sign language, such children can communicate effectively.
Because speech develops as the direct result of hearing, a child with a
hearing loss may have defective speech also.
➢ Technological devices for the hearing-impared have made it possible
for such persons to improve their quality of life.
​Society can do much to improve the living environment for the hearing-
impaired and help them live normal lives.

Topic:42
Chemical Effects Of Electric Current:
➢ The materials, which allow electric current to pass through them, are
good conductors of electricity.
➢ ​Materials, which do not allow electric current to pass through them
easily, are poor conductors of electricity.
➢ Metals such as copper and aluminum conduct electricity whereas
materials such as rubber, plastic and wood do not conduct electricity.
➢ Electric current produces magnetic effect.
➢ Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases and
 salts.
➢ Some liquids are good conductors of electricity and some are poor
conductors.
➢ When salt is dissolved in distilled water, we obtain salt solution. This
is a conductor of electricity.
➢ In 1800, a British chemist, William Nicholson (1753–1815), had
shown that if electrodes were immersed in water, and a current was
passed, bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen were produced.
➢ The passage of an electric current through a conducting solution
causes chemical reactions.
➢ The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another
material by means of electricity is called electroplating.
➢ Electroplating is the most common applications of chemical effects of
electric current process. It is widely used in industry for coating metal
objects with a thin layer of different metals.
​Jewellery makers electroplate silver and gold on less expensive metals.
➢ Tin cans, used for storing food, are made by electroplating tin onto
iron.
➢ A coating of zinc is deposited on iron to protect it from corrosion and
formation of rust.
➢ In the electroplating factories the disposal of the used conducting
solution is a major concern. It is a polluting waste and there are specific
disposal guidelines to protect the environment.
➢ The passage of an electric current through a conducting solution
causes chemical reactions. As a result, bubbles of a gas may be formed
on the electrodes.
➢ Some liquids are good conductors of electricity and some are poor
conductors.
➢ The passage of an electric current through a conducting liquid causes
chemical reactions.
➢ The resulting effects are called chemical effects of currents.
➢ We found that metals such as copper and aluminum conduct electricity
whereas materials such as rubber, plastic and wood do not conduct
electricity.
➢ However, so far we have used our tester to test materials which were
in solid state. But what about liquids
 ➢ When the free ends of the tester do not touch each other, there is an air
gap between them.
➢ Air is a poor conductor of electricity. But during lightning, an electric
current passes through air.
➢ Whether other materials classified as poor conductors also allow
electricity to pass under certain conditions.
​Some liquids are good conductors of electricity and some are poor
conductors.
➢ Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases and
salts.
➢ The passage of an electric current through a conducting liquid causes
chemical reactions.
➢ The resulting effects are called chemical effects of currents.
​ The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another
material, by means of electricity, is called electroplating.
Topic:43
Some Natural Phenomena:
➢ Lightning is an electric spark, on a huge scale. It is caused by the
accumulation of charges in the clouds.
​Such a device can be used to test whether an object is carrying charge
or not. This device is known as electroscope.
➢ Electric charge can be transferred from a charged object to another
through a metal conductor.
➢ The process of transferring of charge from a charged object to the
earth is called earthing.
➢ Earthing is provided in buildings to protect us from electrical shocks
due to any leakage of electrical current.
➢ Metals can be discharged if Negative and positive charges meet each
other.
➢ During lightning and thunderstorm a house or a building is a safe
place wait for some time before coming out of the safe place.
➢ Open vehicles, Open fields, tall trees, umbrella Poles, other metal
objects are not safe during thunderstorms.
➢ Placing hands on knees with head between the hands will make you
 the smallest target to be struck.
➢ Inside the house during a thunderstorm running water, wires are not
safe.
➢ Lightning Conductor is a device used to protect buildings from
lightning.
➢ Natural phenomena like thunderstorms, lightning, earthquake can
cause large scale destruction of human life and property.
➢ An earthquake is a sudden shaking or trembling of the earth lasting for
a very short time. It is caused by a disturbance deep inside the earth’s
crust.
➢ Since earthquakes are caused by the movement of plates, the
boundaries of the plates are the weak zones where earthquakes are more
likely to occur. The weak zones are also known as seismic or fault
zones.
➢ The power of an earthquake is expressed in terms of a magnitude on a
scale called Richter scale.
➢ The tremors produce waves on the surface of the earth. These are
called seismic waves.
➢ The waves are recorded by an instrument called the seismograph In
highly seismic areas, the use of light material, mud or timber is safe.
➢ Take shelter under a table and stay there till shaking stops. Stay away
from tall and heavy objects, Protect head with a pillow.
➢ Drop to the ground, Find a clear spot, away from buildings, trees and
overhead power lines..
➢ Some objects can be charged by rubbing with other objects. The
electrical charges produced by rubbing are called static charges.
➢ There are two kinds of charges — positive charge and negative
charge.
➢ Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
➢ When charges move, they constitute an electric current.
➢ The process of electric discharge between clouds and the earth or
between different clouds causes lightning.
➢ Lightning strike could destroy life and property.
➢ Lightning conductors can protect buildings from the effects of
lightning.
➢ An earthquake is a sudden shaking or trembling of the earth.
➢ Earthquake is caused by a disturbance deep inside the earth’s crust.
➢ It is not possible to predict the occurrence of an earthquake.
➢ Earthquakes tend to occur at the boundaries of earth’s plates.
➢ These boundaries are known as fault zones.
➢ Destructive energy of an earthquake is measured on the Richter scale.
➢ The earthquake measuring 7 or more on Richter scale can cause severe
damage to life and property.
➢ You might have seen sparks on an electric pole when wires become
loose.
➢ This phenomenon is quite common when a wind is blowing and
shacking the wires.
➢ You might also have seen sparks when a plug is loose in its socket.
➢ Lightning is also an electric spark, but on a huge scale.
➢ In ancient times people did not understand the cause of these sparks.
➢ They were, therefore, afraid of lightning and thought that the wrath of
gods was visiting them.
➢ Now, of course, we understand that lightning is caused by the
accumulation of charges in the clouds.
➢ We need not be afraid of lightning, but we have to take precautions to
protect ourselves from the deadly sparks.
➢ The ancient Greeks knew as early as 600 B.C. that when amber
(amber is a kind of resin) was rubbed with fur, it attracted light objects
such as hair.
➢ You might have seen that when you take off woollen or polyester
clothes, your hair stands on ends.
➢ If you take off these clothes in the dark, you see even a spark and hear
crackling sound. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin, an American scientist,
showed that lightning and the spark from your clothes are essentially
the same phenomena.
➢ However, this realization took 2000 years.
➢ The tremors produce waves on the surface of the earth are called
seismic waves.
➢ The waves are recorded by an instrument called the seismograph.
➢ The instrument is simply a vibrating rod, or a pendulum, which starts
vibrating when tremors occur.
➢ A pen is attached to the vibrating system.
➢ The pen records the seismic waves on a paper which moves under it.
➢ By studying these waves, scientists can construct a complete map of
the earthquake.
➢ They can also estimate its power to cause destruction.
➢ Like many other scales in science (decibel is another example),
Richter scale is not linear.
➢ This means that an earthquake of magnitude 6 does not have one and
half times the destructive energy of an earthquake of magnitude 4.
➢ In fact, an increase of 2 in magnitude means 1000 times more
destructive energy.
➢ For example, an earthquake of magnitude 6 has thousand times more
destructive energy than an earthquake of magnitude 4.
➢ Earthquakes occur all the time, all over the earth. They are not even
noticed.
➢ Major earthquakes are much less frequent.
➢ They can cause immense damage to buildings, bridges, dams and
people. There can be a great loss to life and property.
➢ The earthquakes can cause floods, landslides and tsunamis.
➢ A major tsunami occurred in the Indian Ocean on 26th
December 2004.
➢ All the coastal areas around the ocean suffered huge losses.
➢ You learnt that during the development of a thunderstorm, the air
currents move upward while the water droplets move downward.
➢ These vigorous movements cause separation of charges.
​By a process, not yet completely understood, the positive charges
collect near the upper edges of the clouds and the negative charges
accumulate near the lower edges.
➢ There is accumulation of positive charges near the ground also.
➢ When the magnitude of the accumulated charges becomes very large,
the air which is normally a poor conductor of electricity, is no longer
able to resist their flow.
➢ Negative and positive charges meet, producing streaks of bright light
and sound. We see streaks as lightning
➢ The process is called an electric discharge.
Topic:44
Stars And The Solar System
➢ The stars, the planets, the moon and many other objects in the sky are
called celestial objects.
➢ The moon is the brightest object in the sky.
➢ The various shapes of the bright part of the moon as seen during a
month are called phases of the moon.
➢ We see part of the moon, from which the light of the Sun is reflected
towards us.
➢ The moon completes one rotation on its axis as it completes one
revolution around the Earth.
➢ The moon’s surface is dusty and barren.
➢ There are many craters, it has no atmosphere, no water.
➢ The stars are millions of times farther away than the Sun
➢ Distance between stars is expressed in unit known as light year
➢ It is the distance traveled by light in one year.
➢ The stars forming a group that has a recognizable shape is called a
constellation.
➢ Ursa Major has seven prominent stars in this constellation
➢ It is also known as the Big Dipper, the Great Bear or the Saptarishi.
➢ Orion is constellation that can be seen during winter in the late
evenings. It is one of the most magnificent constellations in the sky.
➢ The Sun and the celestial bodies which revolve around it form the
solar system.
➢ It consists of large number of bodies such as planets, comets, asteroids
and meteors.
➢ The gravitational attraction between the Sun and these objects keeps
them revolving around it.
➢ The star Sirius, is the brightest star in the sky.
➢ Cassiopeia is brightest constellation in the northern sky. It is visible
during winter in the early part of the night
➢ The planets do not have light of their own.
➢ They merely reflect the sunlight that falls on them.
➢ A planet has a definite path in which it revolves around the Sun is
called an orbit.
➢ The time taken by a planet to complete one revolution is called its
period of revolution.
➢ The Sun is the nearest star from us. It is continuously emitting heat
and light.
➢ Planet also rotates on its own axis.
➢ The time taken by a planet to complete one rotation is called its period
of rotation.
➢ Any celestial body revolving around another celestial body is called its
satellite.
➢ Moon is a satellite of the Earth.
​ There are many man-made satellites revolving round the Earth
➢ These are called artificial satellites.
➢ The planet mercury is nearest to the Sun. It is the smallest planet of
our solar system.
➢ Venus is earth’s nearest planetary neighbor.
➢ It is the brightest planet in the night sky, it is often called a morning or
an evening star.
➢ The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known
to exist.
➢ The axis of rotation of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its
orbit.
➢ The tilt is responsible for the change of seasons on the Earth.
​Mars appears slightly reddish, it is also called the red planet. Mars has
two small natural satellites.
➢ Jupiter is largest planet of the solar system Jupiter has a large number
of satellites.
➢ Saturn appears yellowish in colour, it has unique rings. Saturn also has
a large number of satellites.
➢ Uranus and Neptune are the outermost planets of the solar system.
➢ Uranus rotates from east to west and it has highly tilted rotational axis.
➢ As a result, in its orbital motion it appears to roll on its side.
​The first four planets, are called the inner planets they have very few
moons.
➢ The planets outside the orbit of Mars, are called the outer planets.
➢ They have a ring system and a large number of moons.
➢ There is a large gap in between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
➢ This gap is occupied by a large number of small objects that revolve
around the Sun. These are called asteroids.
​Comets revolve around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits.
​ However, their period of revolution round the Sun is usually very long.
➢ A Comet appears generally as a bright head with a long tail.
​Meteor is usually a small object that occasionally enters the earth’s
atmosphere. At that time it has a very high speed.
➢ The friction due to the atmosphere heats it up. It glows and evaporates
quickly.
➢ Some meteors are large so that they can reach the Earth before they
evaporate completely.
➢ The body that reaches the Earth is called a meteorite.
➢ When the Earth crosses the tail of a comet, swarms of meteors are
seen. These are known as Meteor Showers
➢ The artificial satellites are man-made. Aryabhatta was the firs
➢ Indian satellite. Some other Indian satellites are INSAT, IRS,
Kalpana-1, EDUSAT,
➢ Artificial satellites have many practical applications.
➢ They are used for forecasting weather, transmitting television and
radio signals. They are also used for remote sensing and
Telecommunication.
➢ The phases of the moon occur because we can see only that part of the
moon which reflects the light of the Sun towards us.
​Stars are celestial bodies that emit light of their own & appear to move
from east to west.
➢ It is convenient to express distances of stars in light years.
➢ The pole star appears to be stationary from the Earth, because it is
situated close to the direction of the axis of rotation of the Earth.
➢ Constellations are groups of stars that appear to form recognizable
shapes.
➢ The solar system consists of eight planets and host of asteroids,
comets and meteors.
➢ A body revolving around another body is called a satellite. Some
planets also have natural satellites
➢ Venus is the brightest planet and Jupiter is the largest planet of the
solar system.
➢ The artificial satellites revolve around the Earth. They are much closer
than the moon.
➢ Artificial satellites are used for weather forecasting, long distance
communication and remote sensing.
➢ The time period between one full moon to the next full moon is
slightly longer than 29 days. In many calendars this period is called a
month.
➢ On July 21, 1969 (Indian time) the American astronaut Neil
Armstrong landed on the moon for the first time followed by Edwin
Aldrin.
➢ The Sun is nearly 150,000,000 kilometres (150 million km) away from
the Earth.
➢ The next nearest star is Alpha Centauri.
​ It is at a distance of about 40,000,000,000,000 km from the Earth.
➢ Some stars are even further away.
➢ Such large distances are expressed in another unit known as light year.
It is the distance travelled by light in one year.
​Remember that the speed of light is about 300,000 km per second.
Thus, the distance of the Sun from the Earth may be said to be about 8
light minutes
➢ The distance of Alpha Centauri is about 4.3 light years.
​Constellations were devised by ancient people to be able to recognize
stars in the sky. The shapes of constellations resemble objects familiar
to those people.
➢ Note that the Pole Star is not visible from the southern hemisphere.
➢ Some of the northern constellations like Ursa Major may also not be
visible from some points in the southern hemisphere.
➢ A constellation does not have only 5-10 stars. It has a large number of
stars.
➢ However, we can see only the bright stars in a constellation with our
naked eye.
➢ All the stars which make up a constellation are not at the same
distance.
➢ They are just in the same line of sight in the sky.
​Till 2006 there were nine planets in the solar system. Pluto was the
farthest planet from the Sun.
 ➢ In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a new
definition of a planet. Pluto does not fit this definition. It is no longer a
planet of the solar system.
➢ You are familiar with the equator of the Earth.
➢ The plane of the equator is called the equatorial
➢ These two planes are inclined to each other at an angle of 23.5º.
➢ This means that the axis of the Earth is inclined to its orbital plane at
an angle of 66.5º.
➢ Some people think that comets are messengers of disasters, such as
wars, epidemics and floods.
➢ But these are all myths and superstitions.
➢ Appearance of a comet is a natural phenomenon. We have no reason
to be afraid of it.
➢ When the Earth crosses the tail of a comet, swarms of meteors are
seen.
➢ These are known as meteor showers.
➢ Some meteor showers occur at regular intervals each year.
➢ You can find the time of their appearance from a scientific magazine
or from the internet.
Topic:45
➢ Pollution Of Air And Water:
➢ The substances which contaminate the air are called air pollutants.
➢ When air is contaminated by unwanted substances which have a
harmful effect on both the living and the non-living, it is referred to as
air pollution.
➢ The sources of air pollutants are factories, power plants, automobile
exhausts and burning of firewood and dung cakes.
➢ Many respiratory problems are caused by air pollution.
➢ Vehicles produce high levels of pollutants like carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides.
➢ monoxide is a poisonous gas, reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood.
➢ Other kinds of pollutants are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are
used in refrigerators, air conditioners and aerosol sprays.
➢ CFCs damage the ozone layer of the atmosphere.
➢ The trapping of radiations by the atmosphere it is called the
greenhouse effect.
➢ Methane, Nitrous oxide and CO2, are also called greenhouse gases.
➢ Gases like CO2 methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour traps heat
and does not allow it to escape into space.
➢ As a result, the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere is
gradually increasing. This is called global warming.
➢ Use Cleaner fuels like CNG and LPG. alternative fuels for our energy
requirements. solar energy, hydropower and wind energy.
➢ The substances that pollute water are called water pollutants. sewage,
toxic chemicals, silt, get mixed with water, the water becomes polluted.
➢ The soil is also affected by impure water, causing changes in acidity,
growth of worms, pesticides and weedicides chemicals dissolve in
water and seep into the ground to pollute ground water.
➢ Water contaminated with sewage may contain bacteria , viruses, fungi
and parasites which cause diseases like cholera, typhoid and jaundice.
➢ Water which is suitable for drinking is called potable water
​Boiling and Chlorination is used for purifying water.
➢ Water treatment plants should be installed in all industrial areas
​Air pollution is the contamination of air by impurities which may have
a harmful impact on the living organisms and the non-living
components.
➢ Pollutants are the substances which contaminate air and water.
​Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, methane and
sulphur dioxide are the major pollutants of air.
➢ Increasing levels of greenhouse gases like CO2 are leading to global
warming.
➢ Water pollution is the contamination of water by substances harmful
to life.
➢ Sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial waste are some of the
major contaminants of water.
➢ Water which is purified and fit for drinking is known as potable water.
➢ If the vehicles registered in Delhi are lined up one after the other, the
total length would be nearly equal to the combined lengths of the two
longest rivers in the world, Nile and Amazon.
​Global warming can cause sea levels to rise dramatically. In many
 places, coastal areas have already been flooded.
➢ Global warming could result in wide ranging effects on rainfall
patterns, agriculture, forests, plants and animals.
➢ Majority of people living in regions which are threatened by global
warming are in Asia.
➢ A recent climate change report gives us only a limited time to keep the
greenhouse gases at the present level.
➢ Otherwise, the temperature may rise by more than 2 degrees Celsius
by the end of the century, a level considered dangerous.
​25% of the world is population is without safe drinking water.
➢ While brushing your teeth, leaving the tap running may waste several
liters of water.
➢ A tap that drips once every second wastes a few thousand liters of
water every year. Think about it.
➢ Over the past 2 decades, Indiaís most famous tourist attraction, Taj
Mahal located in Agra has become a matter of concern.
➢ Experts have warned that pollutants in air are discolouring its white
marble. So, it is not only living organisms that get affected by polluted
air but non-living things like buildings, monuments and statues also get
affected.
➢ The industries located in and around Agra like rubber processing,
automobile, chemicals and especially the Mathura oil refinery, have
been responsible for producing pollutants like sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide.
➢ These gases react with the water vapour present in the atmosphere to
form sulphuric acid and nitric acid.
➢ The acids drop down with rain, making the rain acidic. This is called
acid rain.
➢ Acid rain corrodes the marble of the monument. The phenomenon is
also called IMarble canceri.
➢ Suspended particulate matter, such as the soot particles emitted by
Mathura oil refinery, has contributed towards the yellowing of the
marble.
➢ The Supreme Court has taken several steps to save the Taj.
➢ We are all aware that our environment is not what it used to be.
​Our elders talk about the blue sky, clean water and fresh air that was
 available in their times.
➢ Now the media regularly reports on the falling quality of the
environment. We ourselves feel the impact of the falling quality of air
and water in our lives.
➢ The number of people suffering from diseases of the respiratory
system, for example, is steadily rising.
➢ We shudder to imagine a time when clean air and water may no longer
be available.
➢ You have learnt about the importance of air and water, we will study
about the harmful changes taking place in our surroundings and their
effects on our lives.
➢ The chemicals released include arsenic, lead and fluorides which lead
to toxicity in plants and animals.
➢ There are regulations to prevent this.
➢ Industries are supposed to treat the waste produced before discharging
it into waters, but quite often the rules are not followed.
➢ The soil is also affected by impure water, causing changes in acidity,
growth of worms, etc.
➢ The importance of pesticides and weedicides for the protection of
crops.
➢ However, all these chemicals dissolve in water and are washed into
water bodies from the fields.
➢ They also seep into the ground to pollute ground water.
​Have you seen ponds which look green from a distance because they
have a lot of algae growing in them.
➢ This is caused by excessive quantities of chemicals which get washed
from the fields.
➢ These act as nutrients for algae to flourish. Once these algae die, they
serve as food for decomposers like bacteria.
➢ A lot of oxygen in the water body gets used up.
➢ This results in a decrease in the oxygen level which may kill aquatic
organisms.

PART-4
Topic:46
MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS
➢ Physical Nature of Matter:
➢ Matter is made up of particles which are very small that we can't even
think about.
➢ Characteristics of Particles of Matter
​a. Particles of matter consist space between them.
​b.Particles of matter are continuously moving.
​c. Particles of matter attract each other.
➢ A). Particles of matter consist space between them:
​or we can say that there is a space between the particles in the matter.
➢ For example when we make tea, coffee or lemonade, particles of one
type of matter get into the spaces between particles of the other.
➢ This example shows that there is enough space between particles of
matter.
➢ B).Paticles of matter are continuously moving:
​Particles of matter are continuously moving that is they possess kinetic
energy.
➢ As the temperature rises, particles move faster.
➢ Point to note is that increase in temperature also increases the kinetic
energy i.e.
➢ Temperature is directly proportional to kinetic energy.
➢ C). Particles of matter attract each other:
​Particles of matter have force acting between them which keeps the
particles together.
➢ The strength of this force of attraction varies from one kind of matter
to another.
➢ States of Matter
➢ Matter around us exists in three different states:
​a. Solid,
​b. Liquid and
​c. Gas.
➢ A). Solid state:
​Solids have has a definite shape, distinct boundaries and fixed volumes
that is they have negligible compressibility.
​Solids have a tendency to maintain their shape when subjected to
 outside force.
➢ Solids may break under force but it is difficult to change their shape
i.e. they are rigid.
➢ Some of the interesting solid we encounter in our daily life:
​A rubber band is a solid as it changes shape under force and regains the
same shape when the force is removed.
➢ If excessive force is applied, it breaks.
➢ The shape of each individual sugar or salt crystal remains fixed
whether we take it in our hand or put it in a plate or in a jar,
​hence we can say that sugar/salt crystal is also a solid.
➢ B). Liquid state: Liquids have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume.
➢ Liquids take up the shape of the container in which they are kept.
➢ Liquids flow and change shape so they are not rigid but are fluid.
➢ All living creatures need to breathe for survival.
​The aquatic animals can breathe under water due to the presence of
dissolved oxygen in water.
➢ Thus, we can say that solids, liquids and gases can diffuse into
liquids.
➢ The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of solids.
➢ This is due to the fact that in the liquid state, particles move freely and
have greater space between each other as compared to particles in the
solid state.
➢ C). Gaseous state: Gases are highly compressible as compared to
solids and liquids.
➢ ​Due to its high compressibility, large volumes of a gas can be
compressed into a small cylinder and transported easily like LPG
(liquefied petroleum gas)
➢ which we used in our home for cooking purpose.
​Due to high speed of particles and large space between them, gases
show the property of diffusing very fast into other gases.
​In the gaseous state, the particles move about randomly at high speed.
➢ Due to this random movement, the particles hit each other and also the
walls of the container.
➢ The pressure exerted by the gas is because of this force exerted by gas
particles per unit area on the walls of the container.
➢ Change of state of matter
➢ As we know that water can exist in all the three states of matter:
​a. Solid, as ice,
​b. Liquid, as the water, and
​c. Gas, as water vapour.
1). EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE ON MATTER:
➢ On increasing the temperature of solids, the kinetic energy of the
particles increases.
➢ Due to the increase in kinetic energy, the particles start vibrating with
greater speed.
➢ The energy supplied by heat overcomes the forces of attraction
between the particles.
➢ The particles leave their fixed positions and start moving more freely.
➢ A stage is reached when the solid melts and is converted to a liquid.
➢ The minimum temperature at which a solid melts to become a liquid at
the atmospheric pressure is called its melting point.
➢ The melting point of a solid is an indication of the strength of the force
of attraction between its particles.
➢ The process of melting that is change of solid state into liquid state is
also known as fusion.
➢ The amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg of a solid into
liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the latent
heat of fusion.
➢ So, particles in water at 00 C (273 K) have more energy as compared
to particles in ice at the same temperature.
➢ When we supply heat energy to water, particles start moving even
faster.
➢ At a certain temperature, a point is reached when the particles have
enough energy to break free from the forces of attraction of each other.
➢ At this temperature the liquid starts changing into gas.
➢ The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric
pressure is known as its boiling point.
➢ For water the boiling point is
373 K (100 0C = 273 + 100 = 373 K).
➢ It has defined the latent heat of fusion.
➢ Particles in steam that is, water vapour at 373 K (1000 C) have more
 energy than water at the same temperature.
➢ This is because particles in steam have absorbed extra energy in the
form of latent heat of vaporization.
➢ Hence we can say that the state of matter can be changed into another
state by changing the temperature.
➢ Point to note: A change of state directly from solid to gas without
changing into liquid state is called sublimation and
​the direct change of gas to solid without changing into liquid is called
deposition.
​2.EFFECT OF CHANGE OF PRESSURE ON MATTER
➢ Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy gases.
​Pressure and temperature determine the state of a substance whether it
will be solid, liquid or gas.
➢ Evaporation: We know that particles of matter are always moving and
are never at rest.
➢ At a given temperature in any gas, liquid or solid, there are particles
with different amounts of kinetic energy.
➢ In case of liquids, a small fraction of particles at the surface having
higher kinetic energy is able to break away from the forces of attraction
of other particles and gets converted into vapour.
➢ Henec we can say that the phenomenon of change of a liquid into
vapours at any temperature below its boiling point is called
evaporation.

​ actors affecting evaporation:

F
➢ The rate of evaporation increases with An increase of surface area.
➢ If the surface area is increased, the rate of evaporation increases.
➢ For example, while putting clothes for drying up we spread them out.
➢ An increase of temperature: With the increase of temperature, more
number of particles get enough kinetic energy to go into the vapour
state.
➢ A decrease in humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapour
present in air.
➢ The air around us cannot hold more than a definite amount of water
vapour at a given temperature.
➢ If the amount of water in air is already high, the rate of evaporation
decreases.
➢ An increase in wind speed: We know that clothes dry faster on a
windy day.
➢ With the increase in wind speed, the particles of water vapour move
away with the wind decreasing the amount of water vapour in the
surrounding.
➢ Evaporation cause cooling.
​Let us analyze that In an open vessel, the liquid keeps on evaporating.
➢ The particles of liquid absorb energy from the surrounding to regain
the energy lost during evaporation.
➢ This absorption of energy from the surroundings make the
surroundings cold.
➢ The reason of wearing cotton clothes in winter season:
➢ We know that during evaporation, the particles at the surface of the
liquid gain energy from the surroundings or body surface and change
into vapour.
➢ The heat energy equal to the latent heat of vaporization is absorbed
from the body leaving the body cool.
➢ Cotton, being a good absorber of water helps in absorbing the sweat
and exposing it to the atmosphere for easy evaporation.
➢ Important points :
Matter is made up of small particles.
​1. The matter around us exists in three states— solid, liquid and gas.
​2. The forces of attraction between the particles are maximum in solids,
intermediate in liquids and minimum in gases.
​3. The spaces in between the constituent particles and kinetic energy of
the particles are minimum in the case of solids, intermediate in liquids
and maximum in gases.
​4. The arrangement of particles is most ordered in the case of solids, in
the case of liquids layers of particles can slip and
​slide over each other while for gases, there is no order, particles just
move about randomly.
​5. The states of matter are inter-convertible.
​The state of matter can be changed by changing temperature or
pressure.
 ​6. Sublimation is the change of solid state directly to gaseous state
without going through liquid state.
​7. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk (whole) of the
liquid change into vapour state.
​8. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon.
​Particles from the surface gain enough energy to overcome the forces of
attraction present in the liquid and change into the vapour state.
​9. The rate of evaporation depends upon the surface area exposed to the
atmosphere, the temperature, the humidity and the wind speed.
​10. Evaporation causes cooling.
​11. Latent heat of vaporization is the heat energy required to change 1
kg of a liquid to gas at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point.
​12. Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy required to
change 1 kg of solid into liquid at its melting point.

Topic:47
Purity of Matter
➢ Mixture and Solutions: Mixtures are constituted by more than one
kind of pure form of matter.
​A mixture contains more than one pure substance.
​For example Lemonade, soda water etc. are all solutions.
➢ A solution has a solvent and a solute as its components.
​The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it
(usually the component present in larger amount) is called the solvent.
➢ The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent (usually
present in lesser quantity) is called the solute.

➢ Some of the examples of solution:

​(i) A solution of sugar in water is a solid in liquid solution.
​In this solution,sugar is the solute and water is the solvent.
​(ii) A solution of iodine in alcohol known as ‘tincture of iodine’, has
iodine (solid) as the solute and alcohol (liquid) as the solvent.
​(iii) Aerated drinks like soda water etc., are gas in liquid solutions.
​These contain carbon dioxide (gas) as solute and water (liquid) as
solvent.
 ​(iv) Air is a mixture of gas in gas.
​Air is a homogeneous mixture of a number of gases.
​Its two main constituents are: Oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%).
➢ The other gases are present in very small quantities.
➢ Properties of a solution
​A. A solution is a homogeneous mixture.
B. The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm (10-9 metre) in
diameter.
​So, they cannot be seen by naked eyes.
C. Because of very small particle size, they do not scatter a beam of
light passing through the solution.
​So, the path of light is not visible in a solution.
​D. The solute particles cannot be separated from the mixture by the
process of filtration.
The solute particles do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a
solution is stable.
Concentration of a solution: In a solution the relative proportion of the
solute and solvent can be varied.
​Depending upon the amount of solute present in a solution, it can be
called a dilute, concentrated or a saturated solution.
​Saturated solution: When no more solute can be dissolved in a solution
at a given temperature, it is called a saturated solution.
➢ The amount of the solute present in the saturated solution at this
temperature is called its solubility.
➢ Unsaturated solution: If the amount of solute contained in a solution is
less than the saturation level, it is called an unsaturated solution.
➢ Different substances in a given solvent have different solubilities at
the same temperature.
➢ Hence , the concentration of a solution is the amount (mass or volume)
of solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of solution.
(i) Mass by mass percentage of a solution = (Mass of solute/Mass of solution) ×100
(ii)Mass by volume percentage of a solution= (Mass of solute/Volume of solution) ×100
​(iii)Volume by volume percentage of a solution = (Volume of solute/Volume of solution) ×100
​Example
​Q. A solution contains 40 g of common salt in 320 g of water.
​Calculate the concentration in terms of mass by mass percentage of the
 solution.
​Solution:
​Mass of solute (salt) = 40 g
​Mass of solvent (water) = 320 g
​We know that:
​Mass of solution = Mass of solute + Mass of solvent = 40 g + 320 g
= 360 g
​Now, using formula as Mass percentage of solution = (Mass of
solute/Mass of solution) ×100 = (40/360) ×100 =11.1%

➢ Suspension: A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the

solute particles do not dissolve but remain suspended throughout the
bulk of the medium.
➢ Particles of a suspension are visible to the naked eye.
​Properties of a Suspension:
​a. Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
​The particles of a suspension can be seen by the naked eye.
​b. The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through
it and make its path visible.
​c. The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left
undisturbed, that is, a suspension is unstable.
​They can be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration.
➢ When the particles settle down, the suspension breaks and it does not
scatter light any more.
➢ Colloidal solution: The particles of a colloid are uniformly spread
throughout the solution.
➢ Due to the relatively smaller size of particles, as compared to that of a
suspension, the mixture appears to be homogeneous.
➢ But actually, a colloidal solution is a heterogeneous mixture, for
example, milk.
➢ Because of the small size of colloidal particles, we cannot see them
with naked eyes.
➢ But, these particles can easily scatter a beam of visible light.
➢ This scattering of a beam of light is called the Tyndall effect.
➢ Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the
canopy of a dense forest.
➢ In the forest, mist contains tiny droplets of water, which act as
particles of colloid dispersed in air.
➢ Properties of a colloid
​a. A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
​b. The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen
by naked eyes.
​c. Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it
and make its path visible.
​d. They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is
quite stable.
➢ Common examples of colloids
​Dispersed phase Dispering Medium Type Example
​Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist
​Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust
​Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
​Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
​Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud
​Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice
​Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
​Solid Solid Solid Sol Coloured gemstone, milky glass
➢ Separating the Components of a Mixture
➢ Separation makes it possible to study and use the individual
components of a mixture.
➢ Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective
constituents by simple physical methods like handpicking,
sieving,filtration that we use in
​our day-to-day life.
➢ Sometimes special techniques have to be used for the separation of the
components of a mixture.
➢ The volatile component (solvent) can be separated from its non-
volatile solute by the method of evaporation.
➢ Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very small and pass
through a filter paper.
➢ For such particles the filtration technique cannot be used for
separation.
➢ Such mixtures are separated by centrifugation where the denser
 particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay at the top
when spun rapidly.
➢ Applications:
​a. Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.
​b. Used in dairies and home to separate butter from cream.
​c. Used in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.
➢ SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF SALT AND CAMPHOR
➢ Camphor changes directly from solid to gaseous state on heating.
➢ So, to separate such mixtures that contain a sublimable volatile
component from a non-sublimable impurity, the sublimation process is
used.
➢ Examples of solids which sublime are ammonium
chloride,naphthalene and anthracene.
➢ Chromatography:
​Let's analayze the ink we use for writing.
➢ The ink has water as the solvent and the dye is soluble in it.
➢ As the water rises on the filter paper it takes along with it the dye
particles.
➢ usually, a dye is a mixture of two or more colours.
➢ The coloured component that is more soluble in water, rises faster and
in this way the colours get separated.
➢ This process of separation of components of a mixture is known as
chromatography. In Greek Kroma means colour.
➢ This technique was first used for separation of colours, so the name
was given Kroma.
➢ Chromatography is the technique used for separation of those solutes
hat dissolve in the same solvent.
➢ Uses of chromatography:
​To separate
​a. colours in a dye
​b. pigments from natural colours
​c. drugs from blood.
➢ SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO MISCIBLE LIQUIDS
​Distillation:It is used for the separation of components of a mixture
containing two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition and
have sufficient difference
 i​ n their boiling points.
➢ To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the
difference in boiling points is less than 25 K, fractional distillation
process is used.
➢ For example, for the separation of different gases from air, different
factions from petroleum products etc.
➢ Obtaining different gases from air:
➢ Air is a homogeneous mixture and can be separated into its
components by fractional distillation.
➢ The flow diagram is as:
➢ If we want oxygen gas from air, all the other gases present in the air
must be separated out.
➢ The air is compressed by increasing the pressure and is then cooled by
decreasing the temperature to get liquid air.
➢ This liquid air is allowed to warm-up slowly in a fractional distillation
column, where gases get separated at different heights depending upon
their boiling points.
​Crystallisation: The crystallisation method is used to purify solids.
➢ For example, the salt we get from sea water can have many impurities
in it.
➢ To remove these impurities, the process of crystallisation is used.
➢ Crystallisation is a process that separates a pure solid in the form of its
crystals from a solution.
➢ Crystallisation technique is better than simple evaporation technique
because:
​a. Some solids decompose or some, like sugar, may get charred on
heating to dryness.
​b. Some impurities may remain dissolved in the solution even after
filtration.
➢ On evaporation these contaminate the solid. Applications: a.
Purification of salt that we get from sea water. b. Separation of crystals
of alum (phitkari) from impure samples.
➢ Physical and Chemical Changes
➢ The properties that can be observed and specified like colour,
hardness, rigidity, fluidity, density, melting point, boiling point etc. are
the physical properites.
➢ ​Although ice, water and water vapour all look different and display
different physical properties, they are chemically the same.
➢ Whereas, water and cooking oil are liquid but their chemical
characteristics are different.
​They differ in odour and inflammability.
➢ Similarly, oil burns in air whereas water extinguishes fire.
​It is this chemical property of oil that makes it different from water.
➢ Burning is a chemical change.
➢ During this process one substance reacts with another to undergo a
change in chemical composition.
➢ Chemical change brings change in the chemical properties of matter
and we get new substances.
➢ A chemical change is also called as a chemical reaction.
➢ Types of Pure Substances
➢ On the basis of their chemical composition, substances can be
classified either as elements or compounds.
​Elements:
➢ Element are the basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical reactions.
➢ Elements can be normally divided into metals, non-metals and
metalloids.
➢ Metals possess following properties:
​a. They have a lustre (shine).
​b.They have silvery-grey or golden-yellow colour
​c. They conduct heat and electricity.
​d. They are ductile (can be drawn into wires).
​e. They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets).
​f. They are sonorous (make a ringing sound when hit).
➢ Examples of metals are gold, silver, copper,iron, sodium, potassium
etc.
➢ Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.
➢ Non-metals usually show some or all of the following properties:
​a. They display a variety of colours.
​b. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
​c. They are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable.
​Examples of non-metals are hydrogen,oxygen, iodine, carbon (coal,
 coke),bromine, chlorine etc.
➢ Some elements have intermediate properties between those of metals
and non-metals, they are called metalloids.
➢ For examples boron, silicon, germanium etc.
​compounds: A compound is a substance composed of two or more
elements, chemically combined with one another in a fixed proportion.
➢ Difference between Mixture and Compounds:
​Mixtures Compounds
​1. Elements or compounds just mix together to form a mixture and no
new compound is formed. 1. Elements react to form new compounds
​2. A mixture has a variable composition 2. The composition of each
new substance is always fixed.
​3. A mixture shows the properties of the constituent substances. 3.The
new substance has totally different properties.
➢ 4.The constituents can be separated only by chemical or
electrochemical reactions.

Topic:48
Atoms and molecules
➢ Laws of Chemical Combination:
➢ The following two laws of chemical combination were established
after the experimentations by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust.
​1. Law of conservation of mass:
​Law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
​2. Law of constant proportions:
​In a compound such as water, the ratio of the mass of hydrogen to the
mass of oxygen is always 1:8, whatever the source of water.
➢ Thus,if 9 g of water is decomposed, 1 g of hydrogen and 8 g of oxygen
are always obtained.
➢ Similarly in ammonia, nitrogen and hydrogen are always present in the
ratio 14:3 by mass, whatever the method or the source from which it is
obtained.
➢ This led to the law of constant proportions which is also known as the
 law of definite proportions.
➢ This law was stated by Proust as “In a chemical substance the
elements are always present in definite proportions by mass".
​Dalton’s atomic theory provided an explanation for the law of
conservation of mass and the law of definite proportions.
➢ According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter, whether an element, a
compound or a mixture is composed of small particles called atoms.
➢ The postulates of this theory are stated as follows:
➢ (i) All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms, which
participate in chemical reactions.
​(ii) Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
➢ (iii) Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical
properties.
​(iv) Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical
properties.
➢ (v) Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form
compounds.
➢ (vi) The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given
compound.
➢ Atom: Atoms are very small, they are smaller than anything that we
can imagine or compare with
➢ ​Atomic radius is measured in nanometres.
1/109 m = 1 nm
​1 m = 109 nm
➢ Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols for elements in a very
specific sense.
➢ When he used a symbol for an element he also meant a definite
quantity of that element,that is, one atom of that element.
➢ In the beginning, the names of elements were derived from the name
of the place where they were found for the first time.
➢ For example,the name copper was taken from Cyprus.

➢ Some names were taken from specific colours.

➢ For example, gold was taken from the English word meaning yellow.
➢ In today's era, IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied
 Chemistry) is an international scientific organisation which approves
names of elements, symbols and units.
➢ Many of the symbols are the first one or two letters of the element’s
name in English.
➢ The first letter of a symbol is always written as a capital letter
(uppercase) and the second letter as a small letter (lowercase).
➢ For example
​(i) hydrogen, H
​(ii) aluminium, Al and not AL
​(iii) cobalt, Co and not CO.
➢ Symbols of some elements are formed from the first letter of the name
and a letter,appearing later in the name.
​Examples are: (i)chlorine, Cl, (ii) zinc, Zn etc.
➢ Other symbols have been taken from the names of elements in Latin,
German or Greek.
​For example, the symbol of iron is Fe from its Latin name ferrum,
sodium is Na from natrium,potassium is K from kalium.
​Hence , each element has a name and a unique chemical symbol.
➢ Atomic mass: One atomic mass unit is a mass unit equal to exactly
one-twelfth (1/12th) the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
➢ The relative atomic masses of all elements have been found with
respect to an atom of carbon-12.
➢ Similarly, the relative atomic mass of the atom of an element is
defined as the average mass of the atom, as compared to 1/12th the mass
of one carbon-12 atom.
➢ Atoms of most elements are not able to exist independently.
​Atoms form molecules and ions.
➢ These molecules or ions aggregate in large numbers to form the matter
that we can see, feel or touch.
➢ Molecule: A molecule is in general a group of two or more atoms that
are chemically bonded together, that is, tightly held together by
attractive forces.
➢ A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element or a
compound that is capable of an independent existence and shows all the
properties of that substance.
➢ Atoms of the same element or of different elements can join together
to form molecules.
➢ Molecules of elements: The molecules of an element are constituted
by the same type of atoms.
➢ ​Molecules of many elements, such as argon (Ar), helium (He) etc.
are made up of only one atom of that element.
➢ But with nonmetals, this is not the case.
​For example, a molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen
and hence it is known as a diatomic molecule, O2.
​If 3 atoms of oxygen unite into a molecule, instead of 2, we get ozone,
O3.
➢ The number of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its
atomicity.
➢ Molecules of compounds: Atoms of different elements join together in
definite proportions to form molecules of compounds.
​Examples: Compound:Water
​Combining Ratio: Hydrogen, Oxygen
​Elements by Mass: 1:8

​Compound:Ammonia
​Combining Ratio: Nitrogen, Hydrogen
​Elements by Mass: 14:3
​Compound:Carbon dioxide
​Combining Ratio: Carbon, Oxygen
​Elements by Mass: 3:8
​ION: Compounds composed of metals and nonmetals contain charged
species.
➢ The charged species are known as ions.
➢ Ions may consist of a single charged atom or a group of atoms that
have a net charge on them.
➢ An ion can be negatively or positively charged.
➢ A negatively charged ion is called an ‘anion’ and the positively
charged ion, a ‘cation’.
​For example, sodium chloride (NaCl).
➢ Its constituent particles are positively charged sodium ions (Na+) and
 negatively charged chloride ions (Cl–).
➢ A group of atoms carrying a charge is known as a polyatomic ion.
Chemical Formula
➢ ​The chemical formula of a compound is a symbolic representation of
its composition.
➢ The combining power (or capacity) of an element is known as its
valency.
➢ Valency can be used to find out how the atoms of an element will
combine with the atom(s) of another element to form a chemical
compound.

​The rules to be followed for writing a chemical formula are as follows:

​a. The valencies or charges on the ion must balance.
​b. When a compound consists of a metal and a non-metal, the name or
symbol of the metal is written first.
➢ For example: calcium oxide (CaO), sodium chloride (NaCl), iron
sulphide (FeS), copper oxide (CuO) etc.,where oxygen, chlorine,
sulphur are nonmetals
​and are written on the right, whereas calcium, sodium, iron and copper
are metals and are written on the left.
​c. In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the number of ions
present in the compound is indicated by enclosing the formula of ion in
a bracket and
​writing the number of ions outside the bracket.
➢ For example, Mg (OH)2.
​In case the number of polyatomic ion is one, the bracket is not required.
For example, NaOH.
➢ Formula of simple compounds
➢ The simplest compounds, which are made up of two different elements
are called binary compounds.
➢ While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, we write the
constituent elements and their valencies as shown below.
➢ Then we must crossover the valencies of the combining atoms.
➢ Molecular Mass and Mole Concept
​molecular mass:The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the
 atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance.
➢ It is therefore the relative mass of a molecule expressed in atomic
mass units (u).

​Let's see one example:

​Q. (a) Calculate the relative molecular mass of water (H2O).
​(b) Calculate the molecular mass of HNO3.
​Solution:
​(a) Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u,
​oxygen = 16 u
​So the molecular mass of water, which contains two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen is = 2 × 1 + 1×16 = 18 u
​(b) The molecular mass of HNO3 = the atomic mass of H + the atomic
mass of N + 3 × the atomic mass of O = 1 + 14 + 48 = 63 u
​Formula unit mass
➢ The formula unit mass of a substance is a sum of the atomic masses of
all atoms in a formula unit of a compound.
➢ Formula unit mass is calculated in the same manner as we calculate
the molecular mass.
➢ The only difference is that we use the word formula unit for those
substances whose constituent particles are ions.
➢ For example, sodium chloride as discussed above, has a formula unit
NaCl.
➢ Its formula unit mass can be calculated as:
​1 × 23 + 1 × 35.5 = 58.5 u
Topic:49
Cell - the basic unit of life
➢ Sub-Atomic Particles
➢ Electrons: Electron was discovered in cathode ray experiment.
➢ The term electron was coined by GJ Stoney
➢ Protons were discovered in anode ray experiment.
➢ Anode rays are also called positive rays or canal rays.
➢ Protons was discovered by Wilhelm Wien in 1902. It was identified by
J.J. Thomson.
➢ Neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.
➢ Atomic Models
➢ Various Models of atom:
​(a) Thomson Model or Water Melon Model or Plum pudding Model
➢ According to this model electrons are embedded in the positively
charged mass distributed uniformly throughout the atomic sphere.
➢ This model was proposed by Joseph James Thomson in 1897. This
model is also know as apple pie model.
➢ (b) Rutherford’s Model or Planetary Model:
➢ This model is based on experiments conducted by Rutherford
➢ This model was given by Ernest Rutherford in 1911.
➢ According to this model all the positively charged particles are present
in a small space in the centre of the atom.
➢ This small space is called nucleus.
➢ The electrons revolve around the nucleus just as the planets revolve
around the sun.
➢ Due to this similarity, Rutherford’s model is called the planetary
model or Solar model.
➢ Electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the nucleus in orbits
with a high speed to overcome the electro-static force of attraction
between positively charged particles (protons) present in the nucleus.
➢ Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model
➢ The two deficiencies of this model are:
➢ It is possible to have infinite number of orbits. In practice it is not the
case.
➢ The moving electron must continuously lose energy and fall into the
nucleus.
➢ Actually it is not the case.
➢ Bohr’s Atomic Model
➢ This model was given by Neils Bohr in 1913.
➢ According to this model:
➢ An atom consists of heavy positively charged nucleus.
➢ The whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
➢ The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in definite
circular paths called orbits or energy level.
➢ Each energy level is associated with definite amount of energy.
➢ The change in energy takes place when electron jumps from one
energy level to another energy level.
➢ Arrangement of electrons in an atom
➢ The arrangement of electrons in various shells (energy levels) of an
atom of the element is known as Electronic configuration.
➢ The Maximum number of electrons that could be put in a particular
shell (i.e., energy levels was given by Bohr and Bury.
➢ According to Bohr-Bury Scheme:
➢ The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in any
energy level is given by 2n2 where 11 = 1, 2, 3, 4, …. (for K, L, M,
N…..)
➢ The maximum number of electrons in the outermost orbit will be 8
electrons even if it has capacity to accommodate more electrons.
➢ Electrons, are not accommodated in a given shell. Unless earlier shells
are filled, that is stepwise filling of shells is followed.
NEUTRONS: In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another subatomic
particle which had no charge and a mass nearly equal to that of a
proton.
➢ It was named as neutron.
➢ Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all atoms except hydrogen.
➢ In general, a neutron is represented as ‘n’.
➢ The mass of an atom is given by the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons present in the nucleus.
➢ The way electrons are distributed in the orbilt (shells):
​The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was
suggested by Bohr and Bury.
➢ The following rules are followed for writing the number of electrons
in different energy levels or shells:
​(i) The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the
formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the orbit number or energy level index,
​1,2,3,….
➢ Hence the maximum number of electrons in different shells are as
follows:
➢ First orbit or K-shell will be = 2 × 12 = 2,
​second orbit or L-shell will be = 2 × 22 = 8,
​third orbit or M-shell will be = 2 × 32 = 18,
 ​fourth orbit or N-shell will be = 2 × 42 = 32, and so on.

​(ii) The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in

the outermost orbit is 8.
​(iii) Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner
shells are filled.
➢ That is, the shells are filled in a step-wise manner.
➢ Valency: Valency is the combining capacity of an atom.
➢ The electrons present in the outer most shell of an atom are known as
valence electrons. These electrons determine the valency of an atom.
➢ Valency is equal to the number of valence electrons.
​In case the number of valence electrons is close to its full capacity.
Then,Valency = 8— valence electrons.
➢ ​If outermost shell is completely filled then valency is zero.
➢ Atomic number (Z)
​Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons present
in the nucleus of an atom.
​Atomic number (z) = number of protons = number of electrons.
➢ Mass number (A)
​It refers to the total num¬ber of neutrons and protons, (i.e., sum of
protons and neutrons) called collectively as nucleus, present in an atom.
​Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutron = number
of nucleus
➢ Isotopes: Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but
different mass num bers are known as Isotopes
➢ Applications of Isotopes:
Isotopes are used in, various fields. For example.
​Isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactor
​Isotope of cobalt is used in treatment of cancer
​Isotope of iodine is used in treatment of goitre.
➢ Isobars: Atoms of different elements having same mass numbers are
known as Isobars.
​For e.g K-40 and Ar-40
Things to remember
​1. Credit for the discovery of electron and proton goes to J.J. Thomson
 and E.Goldstein, respectively.
​2. J.J. Thomson proposed that electrons are embedded in a positive
sphere.
​Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment led to the discovery
of the atomic nucleus.
3. Rutherford’s model of the atom proposed that a very tiny nucleus is
present inside the atom and electrons revolve around this nucleus.
​The stability of the atom could not be explained by this model.
​4. Neils Bohr’s model of the atom was more successful.
​He proposed that electrons are distributed in different shells with
discrete energy around the nucleus.
​If the atomic shells are complete, then the atom will be stable and less
reactive.
​5. J. Chadwick discovered presence of neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom.
​So, the three sub-atomic particles of an atom are:
​(i) electrons, (ii) protons and (iii) neutrons.
​Electrons are negatively charged, protons are positively charged and
neutrons have no charges.
➢ The mass of an electron is about 1/2000 times the mass of an hydrogen
atom.
➢ The mass of a proton and a neutron is taken as one unit each.
​6. Shells of an atom are designated as K,L,M,N,….
​7. Valency is the combining capacity of an atom.
​8. The atomic number of an element is the same as the number of
protons in the nucleus of its atom.
​9. The mass number of an atom is equal to the number of nucleons in its
nucleus.
​10. Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which have different mass
numbers.
​11. Isobars are atoms having the same mass number but different
atomic numbers.
​12. Elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.
Topic:50
The fundamental unit of life basic concept
➢ 1. All the living organisms are made up of fundamental unit of life
called” cell”.
​2. The cell is a Latin word for “a little room”.
​3. The scientist Robert Hooke saw a little room in the cork (the bark of
a tree) resembled the structure of a honeycomb.
​The use of the word “Cell” to describe these units is used till this day in
Biology as” Cell Biology”.
➢ 4. The Compound Microscope consist eye piece,objective lens and
condenser to observe a cell after putting a drop of Safranin (for plant
cell) and methylene blue (for animal cell).​
​5. The scientist Leeuwenhoek saw free living cells in the pond water for
the first time. ( father of microbiology)
​6. The scientist Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the cell.
​7. The cell theory states that all the plants and animals are composed of
cells, it was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann.
​8. The cell theory was further expanded by Virchow by suggesting that
“all cells arise from the pre-existing cells”.
​9. The cells differ in size, shape, structure Types of cells: Onion cells,
Smooth muscle cell, Blood cells, Bone cell, Fat cell, Nerve cell, Ovum,
Sperm etc.
​Each kind of cell performs specific function.
​10. A single cell may constitute a whole organism as in Amoeba,
Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and Bacteria; these are called as
unicellular organisms.
​Whereas in multi-cellular organisms (Human beings) division of labor
is seen.
​11. The feature in almost every cell is same: Plasma membrane, nucleus
and cytoplasm.
​12. Plasma membrane: It is the outermost covering of the cell.
​It is called as selective permeable membrane (because it prevents
movement of some materials).
​It helps in diffusion and osmosis
​Diffusion: movement of substance from high concentration to low
concentration.
​Eg; exchange of carbon dioxide or oxygen with external environment.
​Osmosis: It is the passage of water from the region of high water
 concentration to a region of low water concentration through a selective
permeable membrane.
​Osmosis
​a) The cell gains water, if the medium surrounding the cell has a higher
water concentration (Hypotonic solution) than the cell.
​b) The cell maintains the same water concentration as the cell (Isotonic
solution), water crosses the cell membrane in both directions.
​c)The cell loses water, if the medium has lower water concentration
(Hypertonic solution) than the cell.
➢ The cell drinking is endosmosis;
​Omission of water is called ex-osmosis.
​cell wall: Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another
rigid outer covering called the cell wall.
➢ ​The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane.
➢ The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose.
➢ Cellulose is a complex substance and provides structural strength to
plants.
➢ When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is
shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell
wall.
➢ This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.
➢ Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand
very dilute (hypotonic) external media without bursting.
➢ The cell swells, building up pressure against the cell wall. The wall
exerts an equal pressure against the swollen cell.
➢ Because of their walls, such cells can withstand much greater changes
in the surrounding medium than animal cells.
​NUCLEUS
➢ The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane.
​The nuclear membrane has pores which allow the transfer of material
from inside the nucleus to its outside, that is, to the cytoplasm.
➢ The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped
structures only when the cell is about to divide.
​Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of characters from
parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic
Acid) molecules.
➢ Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.
​DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and
organising cells.
➢ Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
➢ In a cell which is not dividing, this DNA is present as part of
chromatin material.
➢ Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like
structures.
➢ Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets
organised into chromosomes.
➢ The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process
by which a single cell divides and forms two new cells.
➢ In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be
poorly defined due to the absence of a nuclear membrane.
➢ Such an undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acids is
called a nucleoid.
➢ Such organisms, whose cells lack a nuclear membrane, are called
prokaryotes (Pro = primitive or primary; karyote » karyon = nucleus).
➢ Organisms with cells having a nuclear membrane are called
eukaryotes.
➢ The chlorophyll in photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is associated
with membranous vesicles (bag like structures) but not with plastids as
in eukaryotic cells
​CYTOPLASM: The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma
membrane.
➢ It also contains many specialised cell organelles.
➢ Each of these organelles performs a specific function for the cell.
➢ Cell organelles are enclosed by membranes.
➢ In prokaryotes, beside the absence of a defined nuclear region, the
membrane-bound cell organelles are also absent.
➢ On the other hand, the eukaryotic cells have nuclear membrane as well
as membrane-enclosed organelles.
➢ Viruses lack any membranes and hence do not show characteristics of
life until they enter a living body and use its cell machinery to multiply.
​CELL ORGANELLES
➢ Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its own contents separate
 from the external environment.
➢ Large and complex cells, including cells from multicellular organisms,
need a lot of chemical activities to support their complicated structure
and function.
➢ To keep these activities of different kinds separate from each other,
these cells use membrane-bound little structures (or ‘organelles’) within
themselves.
➢ This is one of the features of the eukaryotic cells that distinguish them
from prokaryotic cells.
➢ Some of these organelles are visible only with an electron microscope.
➢ Some important examples of cell organelles are: endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria and plastids.
➢ They are important because they carry out some very crucial functions
in cells.
​(i) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER):
➢ The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-
bound tubes and sheets.
➢ It looks like long tubules or round or oblong bags (vesicles).
​The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane.
➢ There are two types of ER– rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
➢ RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called
ribosomes attached to its surface.
➢ The ribosomes, which are present in all active cells, are the sites of
protein manufacture.
➢ The manufactured proteins are then sent to various places in the cell
depending on needusing the ER.
➢ The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids,important
for cell function.
➢ Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane.
➢ This process is known as membrane biogenesis.
➢ Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones.
➢ Although the ER varies greatly in appearance in different cells, it
always forms a network system.

➢ One of the function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport

 of materials (especially proteins) between various regions of the
cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
➢ The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface
for some of the biochemical activities of the cell.
​(ii) GOLGI APPARATUS:
➢ The Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi, consists of a
system of membrane-bound vesicles (flattened sacs) arranged
approximately .
➢ parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
➢ These membranes often have connections with the membranes of ER
and therefore constitute another portion of a complex cellular
membrane system.
➢ The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to
various targets inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus.
➢ Its functions include the storage,modification and packaging of
products in vesicles.
➢ In some cases, complex sugars may be made from simple sugars in the
Golgi apparatus.
➢ The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes.
➢ (iii) LYSOSOMES:
➢ Structurally, lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive
enzymes.
➢ These enzymes are made by RER.
➢ Lysosomes are waste disposal system of the cell.
➢ These help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as
well as worn-out cell organelles.
➢ Foreign materials entering the cell,such as bacteria or food, as well as
old organelles end up in the lysosomes, which break complex
substances into simpler substances.
➢ Lysosomes are able to do this because they contain powerful digestive
enzymes capable of breaking down all organic material.
➢ During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example, when the
cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their
own cell.
➢ Hence, lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.
​(iv) MITOCHONDRIA: Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses
 of the cell.
➢ Mitochondria have two membrane coverings.
➢ The outer membrane is porous while the inner membrane is deeply
folded.
➢ These folds increase surface area for ATP generating chemical
reactions.
➢ The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is
released by mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine tri phopshate)
molecules.
➢ ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.
​The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical
compounds and for mechanical work.
➢ Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their
own DNA and ribosomes.
➢ Therefore, mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins.

(​ V) PLASTIDS: Plastids are present only in plant cells.

➢ There are two types of plastids:
​a. chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and
​b. leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids).
➢ Chromoplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as
chloroplasts.
➢ Chloroplasts are important for photosynthesis in plants.
​Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition
to chlorophyll.
➢ Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch,
oils and protein granules are stored.
➢ The internal organisation of the Chloroplast consists of numerous
membrane layers embedded in a material called the stroma.
➢ These are similar to mitochondria in external structure.
​Like the mitochondria, plastids also have their own DNA and
ribosomes.
(vi) VACUOLES: Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid
contents.
➢ Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very
 large vacuoles.
➢ The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the
cell volume.
➢ In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and
rigidity to the cell.
➢ Many substances of importance in the life of the plant cell are stored
in vacuoles.
➢ These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some
proteins.
➢ In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the
food items that the Amoeba has consumed.
➢ In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play
important roles in expelling excess water and some wastes from the
cell.
➢ Each cell thus acquires its structure and ability to function because of
the organisation of its membrane and organelles in specific ways.
➢ The cell thus has a basic structural organisation.
➢ This helps the cells to perform functions like respiration, obtaining
nutrition and clearing of waste material, or forming new proteins.
➢ Thus, the cell is the fundamental structural unit of living organisms.
➢ It is also the basic functional unit of life.
Cell Division: Cells formed in organisms in order to grow to replace
old, dead and injured cells and to form gametes required for
reproduction.
➢ The process by which new cells are made is called cell division.
➢ There are two main types of cell division:
​a. Mitosis and
​b. Meiosis.
​The process of cell division by which most of the cells divide for
growth is called mitosis.
➢ In this process, each cell called mother cell divides to form two
identical daughter cells.
➢ The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as mother
cell.
➢ It helps in growth and repair of tissues in organisms.
​Specific cells of reproductive organs or tissues in animals an
 ➢ Plants divide to form gametes, which after fertilization give rise to
offspring.
➢ They divide by a different process called meiosis which involves two
consecutive divisions.
➢ When a cell divides by meiosis it produces four new cells instead of
just two.
➢ The new cells only have half the number of chromosomes than that of
the mother cells.
Topic:51
Tissues: plant tissue
➢ ​The growth of plants occurs only in certain specific regions.
➢ This is because the dividing tissue, also known as meristematic tissue,
is located only at these points.
➢ Depending on the region where they are present, meristematic tissues
are classified as apical, lateral and intercalary .
➢ New cells produced by meristem are initially like those of meristem
itself, but as they grow and mature, their characteristics slowly change
and they become differentiated
​as components of other tissues.
➢ Apical meristem is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and
increases the length of the stem and the root.
​The girth of the stem or root increases due to lateral meristem
(cambium).
➢ Intercalary meristem seen in some plants is located near the node.
➢ Cells of meristematic tissue are very active, they have dense
cytoplasm, thin cellulose walls and prominent nuclei. They lack
vacuoles.
➢ PERMANENT TISSUE
​Process of taking up a permanent shape, size, and a function is called
differentiation.
➢ Differentiation leads to the development of various types of permanent
tissues.
➢ i) SIMPLE PERMANENT TISSUE
​A few layers of cells beneath the epidermis are generally simple
 permanent tissue.
➢ Parenchyma is the most common simple permanent tissue.
➢ It consists of relatively unspecialised cells with thin cell walls.
➢ They are living cells.
➢ They are usually loosely arranged, thus large spaces between cells
(intercellular spaces) are found in this tissue.
➢ This tissue generally stores food.
➢ In some situations, it contains chlorophyll and performs
photosynthesis, and then it is called chlorenchyma.
➢ In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to help
them float.
➢ Such a parenchyma type is called aerenchyma.
➢ The flexibility in plants is due to another permanent tissue,
collenchyma.
➢ It allows bending of various parts of a plant like tendrils and stems of
climbers without breaking.
➢ It also provides mechanical support.
➢ The cells of this tissue are living, elongated and irregularly thickened
at the corners.
➢ There is very little intercellular space another type of permanent tissue
is sclerenchyma.
➢ It is the tissue which makes the plant hard and stiff.
➢ We have seen the husk of a coconut.
➢ It is made of sclerenchymatous tissue. The cells of this tissue are dead.
➢ They are long and narrow as the walls are thickened due to lignin.
➢ Often these walls are so thick that there is no internal space inside the
cell .
➢ This tissue is present in stems, around vascular bundles, in the veins of
leaves and in the hard covering of seeds and nuts.
➢ It provides strength to the plant parts.
➢ The outermost layer of cells, called epidermis.
➢ The epidermis is usually made of a single layer of cells.
➢ In some plants living in very dry habitats, the epidermis may be
thicker since protection against water loss is critical.
➢ The entire surface of a plant has an outer covering epidermis.
➢ It protects all the parts of the plant.
➢ Epidermal cells on the aerial parts of the plant often secrete a waxy,
waterresistant layer on their outer surface.
➢ This aids in protection against loss of water, mechanical injury and
invasion by parasitic fungi.
➢ Since it has a protective role to play, cells of epidermal tissue form a
continuous layer without intercellular spaces.
➢ Most epidermal cells are relatively flat.
​Often their outer and side walls are thicker than the inner wall.
​Small pores in the epidermis of the leaf are called stomata .
➢ Stomata are enclosed by two kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
➢ They are necessary for exchanging gases with the atmosphere.
​Transpiration (loss of water in the form of water vapour) also takes
place through stomata.
➢ Epidermal cells of the roots, whose function is water absorption,
commonly bear long hairlike parts that greatly increase the total
absorptive surface area.
➢ In some plants like desert plants,epidermis has a thick waxy coating of
cutin (chemical substance with waterproof quality) on its outer surface.
➢ As plants grow older, the outer protective tissue undergoes certain
changes. A strip of secondary meristem located in the cortex forms
layers of cells which constitute the cork.
​Cells of cork are dead and compactly arranged without intercellular
spaces .
➢ They also have a substance called suberin in their walls that makes
them impervious to gases and water.
(ii) COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE
➢ Another type of permanent tissue is complex tissue.
​Complex tissues are made of more than one type of cells.
➢ All these cells coordinate to perform a common function.
​Xylem and phloem are examples of such complex tissues.
➢ They are both conducting tissues and constitute a vascular bundle.

➢ Vascular tissue is a distinctive feature of the complex plants, one that

has made possible their survival in the terrestrial environment.
➢ Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem
fibres.
➢ Tracheids and vessels have thick walls, and many are dead cells when
mature. Tracheids and vessels are tubular structures.
➢ This allows them to transport water and minerals vertically.
​The parenchyma stores food.
➢ Xylem fibres are mainly supportive in function.
➢ Phloem is made up of five types of cells:
​Sieve cells, sieve tubes, companion cells,phloem fibres and the phloem
parenchyma.
➢ Sieve tubes are tubular cells with perforated walls. Phloem transports
food from leaves to other parts of the plant.
➢ Except phloem fibres, other phloem cells are living cells.
➢ Animal Tissues.
➢ During breathing we inhale oxygen.
➢ It is absorbed in the lungs and then is transported to all the body cells
through blood.
➢ Blood flows and carries various substances from one part of the body
to the other.
➢ For example, it carries oxygen and food to all cells. It also collects
wastes from all parts of the body and carries them to the liver and
kidney for disposal.
➢ Blood and muscles are both examples of tissues found in our body.
➢ On the basis of the functions they perform we can think of different
types of animal tissues, such as epithelial tissue, connective tissue,
muscular tissue and nervous tissue.
➢ Blood is a type of connective tissue, and muscle forms muscular
tissue.
➢ EPITHELIAL TISSUE: The covering or protective tissues in the
animal body are epithelial tissues.
➢ Epithelium covers most organs and cavities within the body.
➢ It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.
➢ The skin, the lining of the mouth, the lining of blood vessels, lung
alveoli and kidney tubules are all made of epithelial tissue.
➢ Epithelial tissue cells are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet.
They have only a small amount of cementing material between them
and almost no intercellular spaces.
➢ Obviously, anything entering or leaving the body must cross at least
 one layer of epithelium.
➢ As a result, the permeability of the cells of various epithelia play an
important role in regulating the exchange of materials between the body
and the external environment
​and also between different parts of the body.
➢ Different epithelia show differing structures that correlate with their
unique functions.
➢ For example, in cells lining blood vessels or lung alveoli, where
transportation of substances occurs through a selectively permeable
surface, there is a simple flat kind of epithelium. This is called the
simple squamous epithelium (squama means scale of skin).

➢ Simple squamous epithelial cells are extremely thin and flat and form
a delicate lining.
➢ The oesophagus and the lining of the mouth are also covered with
squamous epithelium. The skin, which protects the body,
​is also made of squamous epithelium. Skin epithelial cells are arranged
in many layers to prevent wear and tear.
➢ Since they are arranged in a pattern of layers, the epithelium is called
stratified squamous epithelium.
➢ Where absorption and secretion occur, as in the inner lining of the
intestine, tall epithelial cells are present.
➢ This columnar (meaning ‘pillar-like’) epithelium facilitates movement
across the epithelial barrier.
➢ In the respiratory tract, the columnar epithelial tissue also has cilia,
which are hair-like projections on the outer surfaces of epithelial cells.
➢ These cilia can move, and their movement pushes the mucus forward
to clear it.
➢ This type of epithelium is thus ciliated columnar epithelium.
​Cuboidal epithelium (with cube-shaped cells) forms the lining of
kidney tubules and ducts of salivary glands, where it provides
mechanical support.
➢ Epithelial cells often acquire additional specialisation as gland cells,
which can secrete substances at the epithelial surface.
➢ Sometimes a portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward, and a
multicellular gland is formed.
➢ This is glandular epithelium.
➢ CONNECTIVE TISSUE: The cells of connective tissue are loosely
spaced and embedded in an intercellular matrix.
➢ The matrix may be jelly like, fluid, dense or rigid. The nature of
matrix differs in concordance with the function of the particular
connective tissue.
➢ Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix called plasma, in which red blood
corpuscles (RBCs), white blood corpuscles (WBCs) and platelets are
suspended.
➢ The plasma contains proteins,salts and hormones. Blood flows and
transports gases, digested food, hormones and waste materials to
different parts of the body.
➢ Bone is another example of a connective tissue.
➢ It forms the framework that supports the body. It also anchors the
muscles and supports the main organs of the body.
➢ It is a strong and nonflexible tissue .
​Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that is composed of calcium
and phosphorus compounds.
➢ Two bones can be connected to each other by another type of
connective tissue called the ligament.
➢ This tissue is very elastic. It has considerable strength. Ligaments
contain very little matrix and connect bones with bones.
➢ Tendons connect muscles to bones and are another type of connective
tissue. Tendons are fibrous tissue with great strength but limited
flexibility.
➢ Another type of connective tissue, cartilage, has widely spaced cells.
The solid matrix is composed of proteins and sugars.
➢ Cartilage smoothens bone surfaces at joints and is also present in the
nose, ear, trachea and larynx.
➢ We can fold the cartilage of the ears, but we cannot bend the bones in
our arms.
➢ Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and muscles,
around blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow.
➢ It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs and helps
in repair of tissues.
➢ Fatstoring adipose tissue is found below the skin and between internal
 organs. The cells of this tissue are filled with fat globules.
➢ Storage of fats also lets it act as an insulator.
​MUSCULAR TISSUE: Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells,also
called muscle fibres.
➢ This tissue is responsible for movement in our body.
➢ Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins
➢ which contract and relax to cause movement.
➢ Muscles present in our limbs move when we want them to, and stop
when we so decide.
​Such muscles are called voluntary muscles.
➢ These muscles are also called skeletal muscles as they are mostly
attached to bones and help in body movement.
​Under the microscope, these muscles show alternate light and dark
bands or striations when stained appropriately.
➢ As a result, they are also called striated muscles. The cells of this
tissue are long, cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate (having many
nuclei).
➢ The movement of food in the alimentary canal or the contraction and
relaxation of blood vessels are involuntary movements.
➢ They are also found in the iris of the eye, in ureters and in the bronchi
of the lungs.
➢ The cells are long with pointed ends (spindle-shaped) and uninucleate
(having a single nucleus). They are also called unstriated muscles.
➢ The muscles of the heart show rhythmic contraction and relaxation
throughout life.
➢ These involuntary muscles are called cardiac muscles .
➢ Heart muscle cells are cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.
​NERVOUS TISSUE: All cells possess the ability to respond to stimuli.
➢ However, cells of the nervous tissue are highly specialised for being
stimulated and then transmitting the stimulus very rapidly from one
place to another within the body.
➢ The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of the nervous
tissue. The cells of this tissue are called nerve cells or neurons.
➢ A neuron consists of a cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm, from
which long thin hair-like parts arise.
➢ Usually each neuron has a single long part (process), called the axon,
 and many short, branched parts (processes) called dendrites.
➢ An individual nerve cell may be up to a metre long. Many nerve fibres
bound together by connective tissue make up a nerve.
➢ The signal that passes along the nerve fibre is called a nerve impulse.
Nerve impulses allow us to move our muscles when we want to.
➢ The functional combination of nerve and muscle tissue is fundamental
to most animals. This combination enables animals to move rapidly in
response to stimuli.
➢ THINGS TO REMEMBER: A. Tissue is a group of cells similar in
structure and function.
​b. Plant tissues are of two main types – meristematic and permanent.
​c. Permanent tissues are derived from meristematic tissue once they
lose the ability to divide.
​They are classified as simple and complex tissues.
​d. Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are three types of
simple tissues.
​Xylem and phloem are types of complex tissues.
​e. Animal tissues can be epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous
tissue.
​f. Depending on shape and function, epithelial tissue is classified as
squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and glandular.

Topic:52
Biological Diversity
➢ Introduction:
➢ Different kinds of life forms show great diversity among themselves.
➢ For our conve-nience, we put them into different classes, groups and
sub groups on the basis of simi-larities and differences among them.
➢ Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, Tropical rain forests, Nilgiri mountain
range and Himalayas are Biodiversity rich regions of India.
➢ Basis of Classification

➢ Various Models of atom

​(a) Thomson Model or Water Melon Model or Plum pudding Model
➢ According to this model electrons are embedded in the positively
 charged mass distributed uniformly throughout the atomic sphere.
➢ This model was proposed by Joseph James Thomson in 1897. This
model is also know as apple pie model.
​(b) Rutherford’s Model or Planetary Model: This model is based on
experiments conducted by Rutherford. This model was given by Ernest
Rutherford in 1911.
➢ According to this model all the positively charged particles are present
in a small space in the centre of the atom.
​This small space is called nucleus.
➢ The electrons revolve around the nucleus just as the planets revolve
around the sun. Due to this similarity, Rutherford’s model is called the
planetary model or Solar model.
➢ Electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the nucleus in orbits
with a high speed to overcome the elecro-static force of attraction
between positively charged particles (protons) present in the nucleus.
Classification and Evolution
​(a) The life forms that we see today have arisen by accumulation of
changes in the body design that help the ‘organisms to survive in a
better way i.e through evolution.
​(b) Charles Darwin was a British scientist who gave the Theory of
Evolution. He did his research work during a voyage on his famous
ship HMS Beagle.
➢ He wrote the famous book “The Origin of Species”.
​(c) The idea of evolution was first given by Charles Darwin (1859) in
his book “The Origin of Species”.
​Primitive organisms: They have ancient body design.
​Advanced organisms: They acquired changed body design recently.
➢ Older are simpler while younger are complex. The complexity in
design comes during evolution.
➢ The Hierarchy of Classification – Groups
​Ernst Haeckel (1894), Robert Whittaker (1959) and Carl Woese (1977)
classified organisms into kingdoms.
➢ Whittaker divided them into 5 kingdoms, Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia on the basis of their cell structure, mode and
source of nutrition and body organisation.
➢ Various levels of classification are:
 ​Kingdom ->Phylum (animals)/ Division (plants) —> Class -> Order ->
Family -> Genus -> Species.
​5 kingdoms of Whittaker
​A. Monera B. Protista C. Fungi D. Plantae
​Plantae:
➢ They are multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls.
​They have autotrophic mode of nutrition.
➢ All plants are included in this group.
➢ Plants are divided into following 5- groups
​(i) Thallophyta
​(ii) Bryophyta
​(iii) Pteridophyta
​Thallophytes, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes have naked embryos called
spores.
➢ They are also called “Cryptogams” because reproductive organs are
inconspicuous and there is no seed formation.
​“Phanerogams” have well developed reproductive tissues. Seeds are
formed.
➢ Phanerogams are divided into 2 groups –
​(a) Gymnosperms (naked seeded)
​(b) Angiosperms (seeds enclosed in fruits)
​Animalia: They are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic
organisms that do not have cell wall.
​On the basis of extent and type of body design, they are classified as
​(i) PoriferaPorifera
​(ii) Coelenterata
​(iii) Platyhelminthes
​(iv) Nematoda
​(v) Annelida
​(vi) Arthropoda
​(vii) Mollusca
​(viii)Echinodermata
Protochordata
​Notochord is a flexible, rod — shaped body found in the embryos of all
chordates.
​In vertebrates it is replaced by the vertebral column. Notochord helps in
 the development of nervous system.
​Vertebrata
​(i) Presence of notochord
​(ii) Presence of dorsal nerve cord
​(iii) Triploblastic
​(iv) Presence of paired gill pouches
​(v) Coelomic body.
​Vertebrates are divided into 5 classes :
​a. Pisces
​b. Amphibia
​c. Reptilia
​d. Ayes
​e. Mammalia
Topic:53
Reproduction
➢ Introduction: We know that the hromosomes in the nucleus of a cell
contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next
generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
➢ ​The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making
proteins.
➢ If the information is changed, different proteins will be made.
​Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body designs.
​Therefore, a basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy.
➢ Cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA.
➢ This creates two copies of the DNA in a reproducing cell and they will
need to be separated from each other.
➢ DNA copying is achieved by the creation of an additional cellular
apparatus and then the DNA copies separate, each with its own cellular
apparatus.
➢ Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two cells.
➢ No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable and hence it is only to
be expected that the process of copying the DNA will have some
variations each time.
➢ As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar but may not be
 identical to the original.
➢ Hence we can say that the surviving cells are similar but subtly
different from each other.
➢ This inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction is the basis for
evolution.
➢ The Importance of Variation
➢ The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is important for
the maintenance of body design features that allow the organism to use
that particular niche.
➢ Reproduction is therefore linked to the stability of populations of
species.
➢ Temperatures on earth can go up or down, water levels can vary If a
population of reproducing organisms were suited to a particular niche
and if the niche were drastically altered, the population could be wiped
out.
➢ However, if some variations were to be present in a few individuals in
these populations, there would be some chance for them to survive.
➢ So, if there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters
and if the water temperature were to be increased by global
warming, most of these bacteria would die, but the few variants
resistant to heat would survive and grow further.
​Hene we can make a conclusion that the Variationis useful for the
survival of species over time.
➢ Modes of reproduction used by single organisms:
​Fission: For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the
creation of new individuals.
➢ Many different patterns of fission have been observed by the scientists
over the period of time.
➢ Many bacteria and protozoa split into two equal halves during cell
division.
➢ In organisms like Amoeba there is the splitting of the two cells during
division in any plane.
➢ However, some unicellular organisms show more organisation of their
bodies like in Leishmania that causes cause kala-azar and have a whip-
like structure at one end of the cell.
➢ In such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in
 relation to these structures.
➢ On the other hand the single-celled organisms like the malarial
parasite, Plasmodium divide into many daughter cells simultaneously
by multiple fission.
➢ Whereas, Yeast can put out small buds that separate and grow further.
➢ Fragmentation: In multi-cellular organisms with simple body
organisation, simple reproductive methods works.
​Like, Spirogyra which breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation.
➢ These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals.
➢ Wheresas, this is not true for all multi-cellular organisms.
➢ They cannot simply divide cell-by-cell.
➢ The main reason is that many multi-cellular organisms are not a
random collection of cells.
➢ Specialised cells are organised as tissues and tissues are organised into
organs which then have to be placed at definite positions in the body.
➢ In such a organised situation cell-by-cell division will be impractical.
➢ Multi-cellular organisms hence need to use more complex ways of
reproduction.
➢ A basic process behind the multi-cellular organisms is that different
cell types perform different specialised functions.
➢ Following this general pattern, reproduction in such organisms is also
the function of a specific cell type.
➢ Regeneration: If the individual is cut or broken up into many pieces
than many of these pieces grow into separate individuals.
​For example, animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any
number of pieces and each piece grows into a complete organism.This
is known as regeneration .
​Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells and such cells
proliferate and make large numbers of cells.
➢ ​From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become
various cell types and tissues.
➢ These changes take place in an organised sequence known as
development.
➢ But regeneration is not the same as reproduction as most organisms
doesn't depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.
➢ Budding: Organisms like Hydra uses regenerative cells for
 reproduction in the process of budding.
➢ In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division
at one specific site.
➢ These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature,
detach from the parent body and become new independent individuals.
➢ Vegetative Propagation: There are many plants in which parts like the
root, stem and leaves develop into new plants under appropriate
conditions.
➢ ​This property of vegetative propagation is used in methods such as
layering or grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or
grapes for agricultural purposes.
➢ Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits
earlier than those produced from seeds.
➢ Such methods make possible the propagation of plants such as banana,
orange, rose and jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
➢ All plants produced are genetically similar enough to the parent plant
to have all its characteristics which is one of the main advantage of
vegetative propagation..
​Sexual reproduction:
➢ In sexual reproduction, a male gamete (germ cells) fuses with a female
gamete to form a new cell called ‘zygote’.
➢ This zygote then grows and develop into a new organism in due
course of time.
➢ When male gamete and female gamete fuse, they form a zygote and
the process is known as fertilization.
​Types of Fertilization
​a. External fertilization and
​b. Internal fertilization
​Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
​Flower is meant essentially for sexual reproduction.

➢ Pollination: Pollination is the process in which pollen grains are

transferred from the anther to stigma of the carpel.
➢ It is of two types:
​a. self pollination and
​b. cross-pollination.
 In the fertilization process primary endospermic nucleus is formed.
➢ After the fertilization process, ovary developes into the fruit whereas
ovules into the seed.
➢ Reproduction in Human Beings
➢ The sex organ in males are testes and ova in females.
​Male reproductive organ consist of a pair of testes, vasdeferens, a pair
of epididymis, a pair of ejaculatory duct, urethra, pairs of accessory
gland.
➢ Female reproductive part consist of a pair of ovaries, a pair of
fallopian tube, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, mammary glands and
accessory glands.
➢ Ovary produces the female gametes (eggs or ova) and female sex
hormone (estrogen).
➢ If sperms are present, fertilization of ovum takes place in the upper
end of the fallopian tube.
➢ Bleeding accompanied by discharge of soft tissue lining the
reproductive tract is menstrual flow which last for 3-5 days.
​Secretory phase lasts for 12-14 days.
➢ Fertilization process occurs in fallopian tube.
​In this process zygote is formed.
➢ In this process umbilical cord is produced which is attached to foetus.
➢ During this process two hormones are produced which are estrogen
and progesterone.
➢ Progesterone stops mensturation and prevents ovulation.
​The placenta protects the body against diseases.
➢ Due to contraction of uterine muscles young one is expelled and the
phenomenon is called parturition.
➢ If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day.
​Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares
it self every month to recieve a fertilized egg.
​After the age of 45-50 years menses stop and process is called
menopause.
➢ Fertility control can be done chemically, mechanically or surgically.
➢ Reproductive Health Barrier methods
​(i) Mechanical barrier method:
​They prevent contraception by preventing either sperms from entering
 uterus or preventing implantation if fertilization has occurred.
➢ The instruments are condom, cercival cap, diaphragm & ICDU
method.
(ii) Hormonal method:
​They are used by women for suppressing the production of ovum. i.e. ,
oral pills, Implants morning after pills.
​(iii) Chemical contraception:
​They are creams, jellies and foaming tables which are placed in vagina
for killing the sperms at the time of coitus.

​(iv) Surgical techniques:

​(a) Vasectomy: The two vasa deferential of the male are blocked by
cutting a small piece of tying the rest.
​This prevents the passage of sperms from testes to semen.
​(b) Tubectomy:
​A portion of both the fallopian tubes is excised to ligated to block the
passage of ovum.
➢ Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):
➢ It is a group of infections caused by different types of pathogens that
are transmitted by sexual contact between a healthy person and an
infected person.
➢ The sexually transmitted diseases are also called venereal diseases
(VDs).
➢ Almost 30 different types of STDs are known.
​For example : Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Trichomonas, Genital warts, AIDS
etc. .
➢ Main Points to Remember
​1. Reproduction, unlike other life processes, is not essential to maintain
the life of an individual organism.
​2. Reproduction involves creation of a DNA copy and additional
cellular apparatus by the cell involved in the process.
​3. Various organisms use different modes of reproduction depending on
their body design.
​4. In fission, many bacteria and protozoa simply divide into two or
more daughter cells.
 ​5. Organisms such as hydra can regenerate if they are broken into
pieces.
​They can also give out buds which mature into new individuals.
​6. Roots, stems and leaves of some plants develop into new plants
through vegetative propagation.
​7. These are examples of asexual reproduction where new generations
are created from a single individual.
​8. Sexual reproduction involves two individuals for the creation of a
new individual.
​9. DNA copying mechanisms creates variations which are useful for
ensuring the survival of the species.
​Modes of sexual reproduction allow for greater variation to be
generated.
​10. Reproduction in flowering plants involves transfer of pollen grains
from the anther to the stigma which is referred to as pollination.
​This is followed by fertilization.
​11. Changes in the body at puberty, such as increase in breast size in
girls and new facial hair growth in boys, are signs of sexual maturation.
​12. The male reproductive system in human beings consists of testes
which produce sperms, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland,
urethra and penis.
​13. The female reproductive system in human beings consists of
ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina.
​14. Sexual reproduction in human beings involves the introduction of
sperm in the vagina of the female. Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian
tube.
​15. Contraception to avoid pregnancy can be achieved by the use of
condoms, oral pills, copper-T and other methods.

Topic:54
Force and laws of motion:
➢ The first law of motion is stated as An object remains in a state of rest
or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change that

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 state by an applied force.
➢ ​In other words, all objects resist a change in their state of motion.
➢ In a qualitative way, the tendency of undisturbed objects to stay at rest
or to keep moving with the same velocity is called inertia.
➢ This is why, the first law of motion is also known as the law of inertia.
➢ We tend to remain at rest with respect to the seat until the driver
applies a braking force to stop the motorcar.
➢ With the application of brakes, the car slows down but our body tends
to continue in the same state of motion because of its inertia.
➢ When a motorcar makes a sharp turn at a high speed, we tend to get
thrown to one side.
➢ This can again be explained on the basis of the law of inertia.
➢ We tend to continue in our straight-line motion.
➢ When an unbalanced force is applied by the engine to change the
direction of motion of the motorcar, we slip to one side of the seat due
to the inertia of our body.
Inertia and Mass: Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to resist a
change in its state of motion or of rest.
➢ The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia.

​Second Law of Motion: A small mass, such as a bullet may kill a

person when fired from a gun.
➢ These observations suggest that the impact produced by the objects
depends on their mass and velocity.
➢ Similarly, if an object is to be accelerated, we know that a greater
force is required to give a greater velocity.
➢ In other words, there appears to exist some quantity of importance that
combines the object’s mass and its velocity.
➢ One such property called momentum was introduced by Newton.
➢ The momentum, p of an object is defined as the product of its mass, m
and velocity, v.
​i.e.,
​ p = mv
 ​Momentum has both direction and magnitude. Its direction is the same
as that of velocity, v.
The SI unit of momentum is kilogram-metre per second (kg m/s).
➢ ​Since the application of an unbalanced force brings a change in the
velocity of the object, it is therefore clear that a force also produces a
change of momentum.
➢ The second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum
of an object is proportional to the applied unbalanced force in the
direction of force.
​Mathematical formulation of second law of motion: Suppose an object
of mass, m is moving along a straight line with an initial velocity, u.

➢ It is uniformly accelerated to velocity, v in time, t by the application of

a constant force, F throughout the time, t.
➢ The initial and final momentum of the object will be, p1 = mu and p2
= mv respectively.
➢ The change in momentum ∝ p2 – p1
​∝ mv – mu
​∝ m × (v – u).
➢ The rate of change of momentum ∝ m ×(v −u)/t or, the applied force,
​F ∝ m ×(v −u)/t
​F = km(v-u) / t = kma

​Here a [ = (v – u)/t ] is the acceleration, which is the rate of change of

velocity.
​The quantity, k is a constant of proportionality.
​The SI units of mass and acceleration are kg and m s-2 respectively.
The unit of force is so chosen that the value of the constant, k becomes
one.

​For this, one unit of force is defined as the amount that produces an
acceleration of 1 m s-2 in an object of 1 kg mass.
​That is,
​1 unit of force = k × (1 kg) × (1 m s-2).
 ​Thus, the value of k becomes 1.
​F = ma

​ he unit of force is kg m s-2 or newton, which has the symbol N.

T
➢ The second law of motion gives us a method to measure the force
acting on an object as a product of its mass and acceleration.
➢ The second law of motion is often seen in action in our everyday life.
➢ While catching a fast moving cricket ball,a fielder in the ground
gradually pulls his hands backwards with the moving ball.
➢ In doing so, the fielder increases the time during which the high
velocity of the moving ball decreases to zero.
➢ Thus, the acceleration of the ball is decreased and therefore the impact
of catching the fast moving ball is also reduced.
➢ If the ball is stopped suddenly then its high velocity decreases to zero
in a very short interval of time.
➢ Thus, the rate of change of momentum of the ball will be large.
​Therefore, a large force would have to be applied for holding the catch
that may hurt the palm of the fielder.
➢ The first law of motion can be mathematically stated from the
mathematical expression for the second law of motion.

​F = ma
​or F = m(v - u)/t
​or Ft = mv – mu
​That is, when F = 0, v = u for whatever time,t is taken. This means that
the object will continue moving with uniform velocity, u throughout the
time, t.
➢ If u is zero then v will also be zero. That is, the object will remain at
rest.
➢ Third Law of Motion
​The third law of motion states that when one object exerts a force on
another object, the second object instantaneously exerts a force back on
the first.
➢ These two forces are always equal in magnitude but opposite in
 direction.
➢ These forces act on different objects and never on the same object.
➢ In the game of football sometimes we, while looking at the football
and trying to kick it with a greater force, collide with a player of the
opposite team.
➢ Both feel hurt because each applies a force to the other.
​In other words, there is a pair of forces and not just one force. The two
opposing forces are also known as action and reaction forces.
➢ Statement of third law of motion: To every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
​However, it must be remembered that the action and reaction always act
on two different objects, simultaneously.
➢ It is important to note that even though the action and reaction forces
are always equal in magnitude, these forces may not produce
accelerations of equal magnitudes.
➢ This is because each force acts on a different object that may have a
different mass.
➢ When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward force on the bullet. The bullet
exerts an equal and opposite force on the gun. This results in the recoil
of the gun.
➢ Since the gun has a much greater mass than the bullet, the acceleration
of the gun is much less than the acceleration of the bullet.

​Conservation of Momentum: Suppose two objects (two balls A and B,

say) of masses mA and mB are travelling in the same direction along a
straight line at different velocities uA and uB, respectively.​And there
are no other external unbalanced forces acting on them.
​Let uA > uB and the two balls collide with each other as shown in Fig
above.
➢ During collision which lasts for a time t, the ball A exerts a force FAB
on ball B and the ball B exerts a force FBA on ball A.
​Suppose vA and vB are the velocities of the two balls A and B after the
collision, respectively.
➢ The momenta (plural of momentum) of ball A before and after the
collision are mAuA and mAvA, respectively.
➢ The rate of change of its momentum (or FAB) during the collision will
be: mA (vA - uA)/t
➢ Similarly, the rate of change of momentum of ball B (= FBA) during
the collision will be : mB (vB - uB)/t
➢ According to the third law of motion, the force FAB exerted by ball A
on ball B.
​And the force FBA exerted by the ball B on ball A must be equal and
opposite to each other.
​Therefore,
​FAB = – FBA
​mA (vA - uA)/t = - mB (vB - uB)/t
​i.e. mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB
➢ Since (mAuA + mBuB) is the total momentum of the two balls A and
B before the collision and (mAvA + mBvB) is their total momentum
after the collision,
​We observe,
➢ That the total momentum of the two balls remains unchanged or
conserved provided no other external force acts.
➢ As a result of this ideal collision experiment, we say that the sum of
momenta of the two objects before collision is equal to
​the sum of momenta after the collision provided there is no external
unbalanced force acting on them.

​ his is known as the law of conservation of momentum.

T
➢ In another words, total momentum of the two objects is unchanged or
conserved by the collision.

​Things to remember
​1. First law of motion: An object continues to be in a state of rest or of
uniform motion along a straight line unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force.
​2. The natural tendency of objects to resist a change in their state of rest
or of uniform motion is called inertia.
 ​3. The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia. Its SI unit is
kilogram (kg).
​4. Force of friction always opposes motion of objects.

​5. Second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of an object

is proportional to the applied unbalanced force in the direction of the
force.
​6. The SI unit of force is kg m s–2. This is also known as Newton and
represented by the symbol N.
​A force of one Newton produces an acceleration of 1 m s–2 on an
object of mass 1 kg.
​7. The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity
and has the same direction as that of the velocity.
​Its SI unit is kg m s–1.
​8. Third law of motion: To every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction and they act on two different bodies.
​9. In an isolated system (where there is no external force), the total
momentum remains conserved.

Topic:55
GRAVITATION
➢ Gravitation: All objects in the universe attract each other. This force of
attraction between objects is called the gravitational force.
➢ UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION:
➢ Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force
which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of
​the distance between them. The force is along the line joining the
centres of two objects.
➢ Let two objects A and B of masses M and m lie at a distance d from
each other as shown in Fig.
➢ Let the force of attraction between two objects be F.
​According to the universal law of gravitation, the force between two
objects is directly proportional to the product of their masses.
➢ That is,
​F ∝ M × m ..............(i)
➢ And the force between two objects is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them, that is,
​F ∝ 1/d2 ............(ii)
➢ Combining equation (i) and (ii) we get,
​F ∝ M × m /d2
​or; F = G M × m/d2
​where G is the constant of proportionality and is called the universal
gravitation constant.
​or; G = Fd2 / M × m
➢ The SI unit of G can be obtained by substituting the units of force,
distance and mass in as N m2 kg-2 .
➢ IMPORTANCE OF THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION:
➢ The universal law of gravitation successfully explained several
phenomena which were believed to be unconnected:
​(i) the force that binds us to the earth;
​(ii) the motion of the moon around the earth;
​(iii) the motion of planets around the Sun; and
​(iv) the tides due to the moon and the Sun.
➢ Free Fall: Whenever objects fall towards the earth under this force
alone, we say that the objects are in free fall.
➢ ​While falling, there is no change in the direction of motion of the
objects.
➢ But due to the earth’s attraction, there will be a change in the
magnitude of the velocity.
➢ Any change in velocity involves acceleration. Whenever an object
falls towards the earth, an acceleration is involved.
➢ This acceleration is due to the earth’s gravitational force.
➢ Therefore, this acceleration is called the acceleration due to the
gravitational force of the earth (or acceleration due to gravity).
​It is denoted by g.
➢ The unit of g is the same as that of acceleration, that is, m s-2.
➢ There is acceleration involved in falling objects due to the
gravitational force and is denoted by g.
➢ Therefore the magnitude of the gravitational force F will be equal to
 the product of mass and acceleration due to the gravitational force, that
is,
​F = m g
​or; m g = G M m / d2
​where M is the mass of the earth, and d is the distance between the
object and the earth.
​Let an object be on or near the surface of the earth.
➢ The distance d will be equal to R, the radius of the earth.
➢ Thus, for objects on or near the surface of the earth,
​m g = G M m / R2
​g = G M/R2
➢ The earth is not a perfect sphere. As the radius of the earth increases
from the poles to the equator, the value of g becomes greater at the
poles than at the equator.
➢ Calculation of value of g
​To calculate the value of g, we should put the values of G, M and R.
​We know,
​G = 6.7 × 10–11 N m2 kg-2,
Mass of the earth, M = 6 × 1024 kg, and
​radius of the earth, R = 6.4 × 106 m.
​g = G M/R2 = 6.7 × 10–11 N m2 kg-2 × 6 × 1024 kg / (6.4 × 106 m)2 =
9.8 m s-2.
​Thus, the value of acceleration due to gravity of the earth, g = 9.8 m s-
2.
➢ Motion of objects under the influence of gravitational force of the
earth:
➢ As g is constant near the earth, all the equations for the uniformly
accelerated motion of objects become valid with acceleration a replaced
by g.
➢ Hence, the equation are:
​v = u + at
​s = ut + 1/2 at2
​v2 = u2 + 2as
➢ where u and v are the initial and final velocities and s is the distance
covered in time, t.
➢ Mass: The mass of an object is the measure of its inertia greater the
 mass, the greater is the inertia.
​It remains the same whether the object is on the earth, the moon or even
in outer space.
➢ Thus, the mass of an object is constant and does not change from place
to place.
➢ Weight: The weight of an object is the force with which it is attracted
towards the earth.
​We know that
​F = m × a,
​that is,
​F = m × g.
➢ The force of attraction of the earth on an object is known as the weight
of the object. It is denoted by W. Substituting the same ,
​We have,
​W = m × g.
➢ As the weight of an object is the force with which it is attracted
towards the earth, the SI unit of weight is the same as that of force, that
is, newton (N).
➢ The weight is a force acting vertically downwards; it has both
magnitude and direction.
➢ The value of g is constant at a given place. Therefore at a given place,
the weight of an object is directly proportional to the mass, say m, of
the object,
​That is, W ∝ m.
➢ It is due to this reason that at a given place, we can use the weight of
an object as a measure of its mass.
➢ The mass of an object remains the same everywhere, that is, on the
earth and on any planet whereas its weight depends on its location
because g depends on location.
➢ Weight of an object on the moon: The weight of an object on the earth
is the force with which the earth attracts the object.
➢ In the same way, the weight of an object on the moon is the force with
which the moon attracts that object.
➢ The mass of the moon is less than that of the earth. Due to this the
moon exerts lesser force of attraction on objects.
➢ Let the mass of an object be m. Let its weight on the moon be Wm.
 Let the mass of the moon be Mm and its radius be Rm.
​By applying the universal law of gravitation, the weight of the object on
the moon will be

​Wm = G Mm × m / R2m ........(a)

​Let the weight of the same object on the earth be We.
​The mass of the earth is M and its radius is R.

​We know the weight on the earth will be;

​We = G M × m / R2 ...............(b)
​Now, the mass of the earth = 5.98 × 1024
​radius of the earth = 6.37 × 106

​Also, the mass of the moon = 7.36 × 1022

​radius of the moon = 1.74 × 106

​Substituting the above value in equation (a) and (b) we get,

​Wm = 2.431 ×1010 G × m .....(c)
​We = 1.474 ×1011 G × m .......(d)
➢ Dividing equation (c) by (d) we get,
​Wm/We = 2.431 ×1010 / 1.474 ×1011
​or; Wm/We = 0.165 » 1/6
➢ Hence, the weight of the object on the moon = (1/6) × its weight on
the earth.
➢ Thrust and Pressure
​The thrust on unit area is called pressure.
➢ Hence, Pressure = thrust/area
​In honour of scientist Blaise Pascal, the SI unit of pressure is called
pascal, denoted as Pa.
➢ Pressure in fluids: All liquids and gases are fluids. A solid exerts
pressure on a surface due to its weight.
​Similarly, fluids have weight, and they also exert pressure on the base
and walls of the container in which they are enclosed.
➢ Pressure exerted in any confined mass of fluid is transmitted
undiminished in all directions

​BUOYANCY
​The upward force exerted by the water on the bottle is known as
upthrust or buoyant force.
​In fact, all objects experience a force of buoyancy when they are
immersed in a fluid.
​The magnitude of this buoyant force depends on the density of the
fluid.
​Also, The nail sinks. The force due to the gravitational attraction of the
earth on the iron nail pulls it downwards.
➢ There is an upthrust of water on the nail, which pushes it upwards.
​But the downward force acting on the nail is greater than the upthrust of
water on the nail.
​So it sinks.
➢ The cork floats while the nail sinks. This happens because of the
difference in their densities.
​The density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume.
➢ The density of cork is less than the density of water. This means that
the upthrust of water on the cork is greater than the weight of the cork.
​So it floats.
➢ Therefore objects of density less than that of a liquid float on the
liquid. The objects of density greater than that of a liquid sink in the
liquid.
➢ Archimedes’ Principle
​Archimedes’ principle, states that:
​When a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, it experiences an
upward force that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.

​Archimedes’ principle has many applications. It is used in designing

ships and submarines.
​Lactometers, which are used to determine the purity of a sample of milk
and hydrometers used for determining density of liquids, are based on
 this principle.

​Relative Density
​Density of a substance is defined as mass of a unit volume. The unit of
density is kilogram per metre cube (kg m–3).
​The density of a given substance, under specified conditions, remains
the same.
​Therefore the density of a substance is one of its characteristic
properties.

​It is different for different substances.

​For example, the density of gold is 19300 kg m-3 while that of water
is 1000 kg m-3.
​The density of a given sample of a substance can help us to determine
its purity.
​It is often convenient to express density of a substance in comparison
with that of water.
​The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of
water:
​Relativedensity = Density of a substance / Density of water
​Because the relative density is a ratio of similar quantities, it has no
unit.

Topic:56
Work and Energy
➢ Work: In physics work is defined if force applied on object displaces
the object in direction of force.
​All three terms force, dis¬placement and direction of force are
important.
​W= Force x displacement (force in direction of displacement)
​Unit of work
​1 Joule = 1 Newton. 1 metre
​1 J= 1 Nm
➢ When a force of 1 Newton moves a body through a distance of 1 metre
in its own direction the work done is 1 Joule.

​Other units of work:

​1 joule = 1 N x lm = 105 dyne x 102cm = 107 erg

​2. Work done by a force applied at an angle

​W = component of force in the direction of displacement ,
​magnitude of displacement W = Fcosθ.S
​Work done by a force can be positive or negative according as the value
of cosθ is positive or negative.
​(therefore, F and s, being magnitudes, are always positive)
​W = +ve for 0 = acute angle W = — ve for 0 = obtuse angle
​work done by the force does not depend on the time taken in the
displacement of point of action.
➢ Energy: The energy may be defined as the capacity of a body to do
work.
​The SI unit of energy is joule (J).
​or 1 kJ = 1000 J.
➢ Forms of energy: ​The various forms include potential energy, kinetic
energy, heat energy, chemical energy, and light energy.
​Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its state of
motion is called Kinetic energy.
➢ Kinetic energy is always positive and is a scalar.
​The fact, that moving bodies carry energy with them is proved by some,
of the several happenings in day to day life.
​Kinetic Energy, K = 1/mv2, when m is the mass and v is the velocity of
body.
➢ Potential energy: Potential energy is energy. due to position. If a body
is in a position such that if it were released it would begin to move, it
has potential energy.
​There are two common forms of potential energy, gravitational and
elastic.
 ​(i) Gravitational Potential Energy :
​When an object is allowed to fall from one level to a lower level it
gains speed due. to gravitational pull, i.e. it gains kinetic energy.
​Therefore, in possessing height, a body has the ability to convert its
height into kinetic energy, i.e. it” possesses potential energy.
​If a mass m is at a height h above a lower level the P.E. possessed by
the mass is (mg) (h).

​(ii) Elastic Potential energy:

​Same work has to be done to change the shape of a body.
​This work gets stored in the deformed body in the form of elastic
potential energy.
​Elastic potential energy is never negative whether due to extension or to
compression.
➢ Law of Conservation of Energy
​According to this law, energy can only be converted from one form to
another: it can neither be created or destroyed.
​The total energy before and after the transformation remains the same.
​The law of conservation of energy is valid in all situations and for all
kinds of transformations.
➢ Power: The time rate of doing work is defined as power (P). More
quickly work is done; power will be more.
​Power= work/time.
➢ Unit of power :The unit of power is the joule per second and this is
called the Watt (W).
➢ ​When large amounts of power are involved, a more convenient unit is
the kilowatt (kW) where 1 kW = 1000W.

​1 Megawatt = 106 watt

​1 horse power = 746 watt
​The unit kilowatt-hour means one kilowatt of power supplied for one
hour. It is, therefore, the unit of energy.
​1 KWh = (1000 J/s) x 60 x 60s = 3.6 x 106 J
➢ Topic:
➢ Sound: Sound is a form of energy which produces a sensation of
hearing in our ears.
➢ Source of sound and its propagation : A source of vibration motion of
an object is normally a source of sound.
➢ Characteristics of the medium required for the propagation of sound
​(i) Medium must be elastic so that the medium particles have the
tendency to return back to their original positions after the
displacement.
​(ii) Medium must have the inertia so that its particles have the capacity
to store the energy.
➢ The frictional resistance of the medium should be negligible to
minimise the loss of energy in propagation.
➢ Types of waves
​(i) Mechanical waves : A mechanical wave is a periodic disturbance
which requires a material medium for its propagation.
➢ On the basis of motion of particles the mechanical waves are classified
into two parts.
​(a) Transverse wave
​(b) Longitudinal wave
Transverse wave: When the particles of the medium vibrate in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, the
wave is known as the transverse wave.

For example, waves produced in a stretched string.

​Longitudinal wave: When the particles of the medium vibrate

along the direction of propagation of the wave then the wave is
known as the longitudinal wave.
​For example sound wave in air.

​Electromagnetic waves: The waves which do not require medium

for propagation are called electromagnetic waves these waves can
travel through vacuum also.
​For example, light waves, X-rays.
​Characteristics of a sound wave
​a. Frequency :
​The number of vibrations per second is called frequency.
​The unit of frequency is hertz.
​b. Amplitude:
​The maximum displacement of each particle from its mean
position is called amplitude.
​The S.I. unit of amplitude is metre (m).

​c. Time period:

​The time taken to complete one vibration is called time period.
​Frequency= 1/(Time period) or v = 1/T

​d. Wavelength:
​The distance between two nearest (adjacent) crests or troughs of a
wave is called its wavelength.

​e. Velocity of wave:

​The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity
of the wave (or speed of the wave).
​The S.I. unit for the velocity of a wave is metres per second (m/s
or ms-1).

​f. Pitch :
​Pitch is the sensation (brain interpretation) of the frequency of an
emitted sound and is the characteristic which distinguishes a shrill
(or sharp) sound from a
​grave (or flat) sound.

​g. Loudness :
​It is a measure of the sound energy reaching the ear per second.
​Reflection of sound
​When sound waves strike a surface, they return back into the same
medium.
​This phenomenon is called reflection.

​Laws of reflection : Angle of incidence is equal the angle of

reflection.
The incident wave, the reflected wave and the normal all lie in the
same plane.
Echo: Phenomenon of hearing back our own sound is called an
echo.
It is due to successive reflection from the surfaces obstacles of
large size.
Relation between speed of sound, time of hearing echo and
distance of reflection body : If t is the time at which an echo is
heard, d is the distance between the source of sound and the
reflecting body and v is the speed of sound.
The total distance travelled by the sound is 2d.
​speed of sound, v = 2d/t or d = vt/2

​Conditions for the formation of Echoes

​(i) The minimum distance between the source of sound and the
reflecting body should be 17.2 metres.
​(ii) The wavelength of sound should be less than the height of the
reflecting body.
​(iii) The intensity of sound should be sufficient so that it can be
heard after reflection.

​Reverberation
​Persistence of sound after its production is stopped, is called
reverberation.
​A short reverberation is desirable in a concert hall (where music is
being played) because it gives ‘life’ to sound.
​Too much reverberation confuses the programmers and must be
reduced to reduce reverberation.
Range of Hearing: The audible range of sound for human beings
extends from about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (one Hz = one cycle/s).
​Sounds of frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasonic sound or
infrasound.
Frequencies higher than 20 kHz are called ultrasonic sound or ultra
sound.
Ultrasound is produced by dolphins.
Applications of ultrasound: The ultrasound is commonly used for
medical diagnosis and therapy, and also as a surgical tool.
​It is also used in a wide variety of industrial applications and
processes.
Some creatures use ultrasound for information exchange and for
the detection and location of objects.
Also some bats and porpoises are found to use ultrasound for
navigation and to locate food in darkness or at a place where there
is inadequate
​light for vision (method of search is called echolocation.
Sonar: Sonar means Sound Navigation Rang-ing.
​In this sound waves (ultrasonic) are used [microwaves are
absorbed by water)].
​Sound waves are emitted by a source. These waves travel in water
with velocity v.
​The waves reflected by targets (like submarine bottom sea) are
detected.

​Uses :
​(i) The SONAR system is used for detecting the presence of
unseen underwater objects, such as a submerged submarine, a
sunken ship, sea rock or
​a hidden iceberg, and locating them accurately.

​(ii) The principle of SONAR is also used in industry of detection

of flaws in metal blocks or sheets without damaging them.
 ​Human ear
​It is a highly sensitive part of the human body which enables us to
hear a sound.
​It converts the pressure variations in air with audible frequencies
into electric signals which travel to the brain via the auditory
nerve.
The human ear has three main parts.
​Their auditory functions are as follows:
​(i) Outer ear :
​The outer ear is called `pinna’.
​It collects the sound from the suri-ounding.
​The collected sound passes through the auditory canal.
​At the end of the auditory canal there is a thin membrane called the
ear drum or tympanic membrane.
When compression of the medium produced due to vibration of the
object reaches the ear drum, the pressure on the outside of the
membrane increases
​and forces the eardrum inward. Similarly, the eardrum moves
outward when a rarefaction reaches.
​In this way the ear drum vibrates.
​(ii) Middle ear:
​The vibrations are amplified several times by three bones (the
hammer, anvil and stirrup) in the middle ear which act as levers.
​The middle ear transmits the amplified pressure variations received
from the sound wave to the inner ear.

​(iii) Inner ear:

​In the inner ear, the pressure variations are turned into electrical
signals by the cochlea. These electrical signals are sent to the brain
via the auditory nerve, and the brain interprets them as sound.

Topic:57
Natural Resources
➢ Introduction: Life on planet earth is dependent on many factors like
resources available on Earth, energy from the Sun etc.
➢ The different resources available on the Earth are land, water and air.
➢ All of these three things are required for the existence of life forms.
​Lithosphere :The outer crust of the Earth.
​Hydrosphere : 75% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water.
​This water along with underground water comprises the hydrosphere.
➢ Atmosphere :The air covering of earth is-called atmosphere.
➢ Biosphere :The life-supporting zone of the Earth where the
atmosphere, hydrosphere and the lithosphere interact and make life
possible is known as the biosphere.
​World Environment Day -5th June.
➢ Biotic components :The living things constitute the biotic components
of the Biosphere.
➢ Abiotic components : The non-living things air, water and soil form
the abiotic components of the Biosphere.
➢ The Breath of Life: Air is a mixture of many gases like nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour.
​On Venus and Mars there is no life because carbon dioxide
constitutes 95-97% of the atmosphere.
➢ Carbon dioxide is produced in the atmosphere by following activities :
​(i) Breakdown of glucose in presence of oxygen by organisms.
​(ii) Combustion of fuels.
​Carbon dioxide is fixed in two ways :
​(i) Green plants convert carbon dioxide into glucose by photosynthesis.
​(ii) Marine animals use carbonates dissolved in sea-water to make their
shells.
➢ The role of atmosphere in climate control
​Atmosphere keeps the average temperature of the earth steady during
the day and whole year.
​Atmosphere prevents sudden increase in temperature during daytime
and fall of temperature during night.
​Moon has no atmosphere, its temperature ranges from — 190°C
to 110°C.
​The rate of atomosphere in climate control is the movement of Air,
Rain, Air pollution, Water.
➢ Transverse wave: When the particles of the medium vibrate in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, the
wave is known as the transverse wave.
​For example, waves produced in a stretched string.
➢ Water pollution
The addition of undesirable substances to water and removal of
desirable substances from water is called water pollution.
​The main causes of water pollution are as follows:
​(i) Addition of harmful substances to water
​(ii) Removal of desirable substances from water
​(iii) Change in water temperature
​Mineral riches in the soil
➢ Soil is the most important natural resource which supplies nutrients to
the life forms.
➢ Soil is formed by weathering of rocks in thousands of years.
➢ Following factors are responsible for making soil from rocks.
​A. Sun
​B. Water
​C. Wind
​D. Some organisms like lichen and mosses grow on the surface of rocks
and they release certain substances that cause weathering of rocks and a
thin layer of soil is formed.
➢ Humus :
​The decayed living organisms present in soil is called humus. Humus
makes the soil porous and allows water and air to penetrate deep
underground.

​Soil pollution
​Removal of useful components from the soil and addition of other
substances, which adversely affect the fertility of the soil and kill
micro-organisms living in it
​is called soil pollution. Fertilizers and pesticides destroy the soil
structure.
➢ Mosses or Bryophytes are indicator of soil pollution.
➢ Soil erosion: Removal of topmost layer of soil by wind, water or other
 activities is called soil erosion.
➢ ​Roots of plants prevent soil erosion by firmly holding the soil
particles.
➢ Chipko Movement: It is a movement related with forest conservation
led by Shri. Sunder Lal Bahuguna in Garhwal Himalayas.

​Biogeochemical cycles
​Various biogeochemical cycles exist in the nature which represent
interaction between biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere to
make a stable system.
​(A) Water cycle
​(B) Nitrogen cycle
​(C) Carbon cycle
​(D) Oxygen-cycle

​Green House Effect

​Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxide and
Chlorofuorocarbans present in atmosphere prevents the escape of heat
​falling on Earth’s surface rather than absorbing it.
➢ ​This keeps the Earth warm and the phenomenon is known greenhouse
effect.
​An increase in these greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere would cause more heat to be retained by the atmosphere
and leads to global warming.
​Green house effect will rise to global warming due to which the average
temperature will increase by 10 or 2° worldwide.

​Due to increased temperature the ice-caps would melt, there is rise in

the sea-level and it is feared that coastal areas would be destroyed by
floods.
​Uncertain climatic conditions are also the effect of global warming.

​Ozone layer
 ​Three molecules of oxygen combine to form ozone. Ozone layer is
found in stratosphere.
​It acts as a ozone shield and protects. Earth from harmful effect of
ultraviolet radiation.
​However many man-made components like CFCs (Chloro
fluorocarbons) reacts with ozone releasing molecular oxygen, caus¬ing
ozone depletion.

​Ozone depletion has been marked in Antarctic region where ozone

layer thickness has dropped to 94 DU in 1994 from 285 DU.
​This depletion of ozone layer thickness is called ozone hole.
Topic:58
WHY DO WE FALL ILL?
➢ Health and its Failure
➢ THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ‘HEALTH:
➢ ​If we think about helath, we realise that it always implies the idea of
‘being well’. We can think of this well-being as effective functioning.
​For our grandmothers, being able to go out to the market or to visit
neighbours is ‘being well’, and not being able to do such things is ‘poor
health’.
➢ Being interested in following the teaching in the classroom so that we
can understand the world is called a ‘healthy attitude’; while not being
interested is called the opposite.
​‘Health’ is therefore a state of being well enough to function well
physically, mentally and socially.
➢ Personal and community issues both matter for health: ​If health means
a state of physical, mental and social well-being, it cannot be something
that each one of us can achieve entirely on our own.
➢ The health of all organisms will depend on their surroundings or their
environment. The environment includes the physical environment.
➢ So, for example, health is at risk in a cyclone in many ways. Human
beings live in societies. Our social environment, therefore, is an
important factor in our individual health.
​We live in villages, towns or cities. In such places, even our physical
 environment is decided by our social environment.
➢ If there is a great deal of garbage thrown in our streets, or if there is
open drain water lying stagnant around where we live, the possibility of
poor health increases.
➢ Therefore, public cleanliness is important for individual health.
➢ We need food to be healthy, and this food will have to be earned by
doing work.
​For this, the opportunity to do work has to be available
➢ we need to be happy in order to be truly healthy, and if we mistreat
each other and are afraid of each other,
we cannot be happy or healthy. Social equality and harmony are
therefore necessary for individual health.
➢ We can think of many other such examples of connections between
community issues and individual health.
➢ Disease: Disease means being uncomfortable. One or more systems of
the body will change, give rise to Symptoms Cough, loose motions, pus
formation, headache, fever, breathlessness, vomiting, fits,
unconsciousness,
​inflammation , swelling and general effects - a Doctor look for the basis
of symptoms).

​Diseases are basically two types:

​Acute Disease & Chronic Disease
​Acute Disease
​The disease which lasts for only a short period of time is called Acute
Disease.
​Ex. Common Cold.
​Chronic Disease
​The disease which lasts for long period of time is called Chronic
Disease.
​Ex. Tuberculosis.
➢ Different between acute disease and chronic disease
➢ ​Acute diseases are short duration disease.
➢ Chronic diseases are long lasting disease
​Patient recovers completely after the cure. Patient does not recover
 completely.
➢ There is no loss of weight or feeling of tiredness afterward. There is
often loss of weight of feeling of tiredness
​There is short duration loss of work and efficiency. There is a
prolonged loss of work and efficiency.
➢ Causes of Diseases: Most of the diseases have many causes, rather
than one single cause, like unclean water, nourishment, genetic
differences, genetic abnormalities.
​e.g. Based on the causes diseases are of two types:
​Non-Infectious Diseases and Infectious Diseases.
➢ Non-Infectious Diseases: Not caused by infectious agents, mostly
internal and non- infectious cause.
​Ex. Cancer
​Infectious Diseases
​Caused by infectious agents.
​Types of Disease with Example
​S.No Type Of Disease Example
​1 Bacterial diseases Typhoid, Cholera, Tuberculosis, Acne, Anthrax
​2 Viral diseases Common Cold, Influenza, Dengue fever, AIDS,
Japanese encephalitis or brain fever
​3 Fungal diseases Skin diseases
​4 Protozoan diseases Malaria ( Plasmodium), Kalaazar (Leishmania),
Sleeping sickness( Trypanosomes)
​5 Worm diseases Ascariosis ( Round worm), Elephantiasis(Wuchereria
)
​6 Air born Diseases Pneumonia, common cold, Tuberculosis;
​7 Water born diseases Cholera, hepatitis
​8 Sexual Diseases HIV, Syphilis.
​9 Animal born Disease Rabbis. *(Vector- the animal carrying infectious
agent from a sick person to another potential host without getting
affected.
​Ex. Mosquito carrying Malaria Parasite)
​Antibiotics
​Many bacteria make a cell wall to protect themselves, the antibiotic
(Penicillin) blocks the bacterial process that builds cell wall and blocks
the biochemical pathways.
 ​Antibiotics do not work against viral infections. Antiviral medicine is
harder than making Antibacterial medicine because Virus has only few
biochemical mechanisms of their own.

​Other medicines bring down fever, reduce pain or loose motions.

​We can take bed rest to conserve energy.

​General ways of preventing infectious disease

​Air-borne:
​We can prevent exposure by providing living condition that are not
overcrowded.

​Water-borne:
​Can be prevented by providing safe drinking water. This is done by
treating the water to kill any microbial contamination.

​Vector-borne:
​We can provide clean environment, which would not allow mosquito
breeding.

​Immunity
​Even in cells there is repair mechanism called Immunity.
​Immune cells manage to kill off the infectious agents.
​Smallpox disease is eliminated by developing memory cells for
particular infection by mimics the microbes, called Vaccine.
​The basis of Immunization- if you had smallpox once, there was no
chance of suffering from it again.
​Proper nutrition is essential to maintain body immunity.
​There are vaccines against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough,
measles, polio and many other diseases.
➢ Thing To Do:
➢ ​Prevention of disease is better than cure.
➢ Hygiene is the basic key to maintain good health.
Topic:59
Chemical Reactions and Equations
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS: W ​ hen a magnesium ribbon is burnt in oxygen, it
gets converted to magnesium oxide.
​This description of a chemical reaction in a sentence form is quite long.
​It can be written in a shorter form.
​The simplest way to do this is to write it in the form of a word-equation.

​The word-equation for the reaction of magnesium and oxygen is represented

as:
​Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide ......................(1)
​Here the magnesium and the oxygen are the reactants as they are the ones
taking part in chemical reaction.
​On the other hand, the magnesium oxide is the byproduct or simply the
resultant due to the combination of reactants, hence known as a product.

​A word-equation shows change of reactants to products through an arrow

placed between them.
​The reactants are written on the left-hand side (LHS) with a plus sign (+)
between them.

​Similarly, products are written on the right-hand side (RHS) with a plus sign
(+) between them.
​The arrowhead points towards the products, and shows the direction of the
reaction.

​Writing a Chemical Equation

​If chemical formula of chemicals are used instead of words then the chemical
equations will be more concise and easy.
​A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction.

​Writing the above equation in terms of formula;

​We know,
​Magnesium = Mg
​Oxygen = O2
​Magnesium Oxide = MgO

​Then the equation (1) interms of formula becomes;

​Mg + O2 → MgO ..................................(2)

​Here a point to note is the number of atoms of each element on the LHS and
RHS of the arrow.
​If the number of atoms of each element are same on both the sides, then the
equation is balanced whereas if the number of atoms of each element are not
same on both sides
​then the equation is known as unbalanced equation because the mass won't be
same on both sides of the equation.

​Such a chemical equation is a skeletal chemical equation for a reaction.

​The above equation no 2 is a skeletal chemical equation for the burning of
magnesium in air.

​Balanced Chemical Equations

​The law of conservation of mass states that ; mass can neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
​That is, the total mass of the elements present in the products of a chemical
reaction has to be equal to the total mass of the elements present in the
reactants.

​In other words, the number of atoms of each element remains the same,
before and after a chemical reaction.
​So, if the equation is not balanced or is in a skeletal form, we need to balance
such equations.
​Let us consider a word equation as:
​Zinc + Suplhuric acid → Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
​The above equation in terms of chemical equation is:
​Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2 ................(3)

​Now let us analyze the number of atoms of different elements on both sides
of the arrow.
​Element Number of atoms in reactants (LHS) Number of atoms in products
(RHS)
​Zn l 1
​H 2 2
​S 1 1
​O 4 4
​Here we can see that the number of atoms of each element is same on both
sides of the arrow hence, the above equation is the balanced equation.
​Now, let us see another equation:
​Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2 ..............(4)
​Step I: To balance a chemical equation, first draw boxes around each
formula.
​Do not change anything inside the boxes while balancing the equation.

​Step II: List the number of atoms of different elements present in the
unbalanced equation.
​Element Number of atoms in reactants (LHS) Number of atoms in products
(RHS)
​Fe l 3
​H 2 2
​O 1 4
​Step III:
​It is often convenient to start balancing with the compound that contains the
maximum number of atoms.
​It may be a reactant or a product.
​In that compound, select the element which has the maximum number of
atoms.
​Using these criteria, we select Fe3O4 and the element oxygen in it.
​There are four oxygen atoms on the RHS and only one on the LHS.
​To balance the oxygen atoms:

​Atoms of oxygen In reactants In products

​i) Initial l (in H2O) 4 (in Fe3O4)
​ii)To balance 1×4 4
​To equalise the number of atoms, it must be remembered that we cannot alter
the formulae of the compounds or elements involved in the reactions.
​For example, to balance oxygen atoms we can put coefficient ‘4’ as 4 H2O
and not H2O4 or (H2O)4.

​Now the partly balanced equation becomes:

​Fe + 4 H2O → Fe3O4 + H2 ..............(5)
​Step IV: Fe and H atoms are still not balanced. Pick any of these elements to
proceed further.
​Let us balance hydrogen atoms in the partly balanced equation.
​To equalize the number of H atoms, make the number of molecules of
hydrogen as four on the RHS.
​Atoms of hydrogen In reactants In products
​i) Initial 8 (in 4 H2O) 2 (in H2)
​ii)To balance 8 2×4
​The equation will be:
​(Fe) + 4 (H2O) → Fe3O4 + 4 (H2) ..............(6)
​Step V:
​Examine the above equation and pick up the third element which is not
balanced.
​You find that only one element is left to be balanced, that is, iron.
​Atoms of iron In reactants In products
​i) Initial 1 (in Fe) 3 (in Fe3O4)
​ii) To balance 1×3 3
​To equalize Fe, we take three atoms of Fe on the LHS.
​3(Fe) + 4 (H2O) → Fe3O4 + 4 (H2) ..............(7)
​Step VI: Finally, to check the correctness of the balanced equation, we count
atoms of each element on both sides of the equation.
​3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2 ..............(8)
​The numbers of atoms of elements on both sides of Eq. (8) are equal.
​This equation is now balanced.
​This method of balancing chemical equations is called hit-and-trial method as
we make trials to balance the equation by using the smallest whole number
coefficient.
​Also the reaction conditions, such as temperature, pressure, catalyst, etc., for
the reaction are indicated above or below the arrow in the equation.
​Let us see some of such examples:

​TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

​1. Combination Reaction.
​Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide) releasing a large amount of heat.
​CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + Heat ......................(1)

​Here, CaO - Quick lime

​Ca(OH)2 = Slaked lime
​Here in the above reaction, calcium oxide and water combine to form a single
product, calcium hydroxide and such type of reaction in which a single
product
​is formed from two or more reactants is known as a combination reaction.

​Some more examples of combination reaction:

​a. Burning of Coal:
​C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
​b. Formation of water from H2(g) and O2(g):
​2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

​2. Decomposition Reaction:

​A type of reaction in which single reactant breaks down to give simpler
products is known as a decomposition reaction.
​Decomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide on
heating is an important decomposition reaction used in various industries.
​Calcium oxide, known as lime or quick lime has many uses – one is in the
manufacture of cement.
​Decomposition reaction carried out by heating, is called thermal
decomposition.

​CaCO3(s) on heating → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

​The decomposition reactions require energy either in the form of heat, light
or electricity for breaking down the reactants.
​Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic reactions.

​3. Displacement Reaction:

​Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

​Herer , in the above reaction, iron has displaced or removed another element,
copper, from copper sulphate solution.
​Such type of reaction is known as displacement reaction.

​Some more examples of displacement reactions are:

​Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
​Pb(s) + CuCl2(aq) → PbCl2(aq) + Cu(s)

​4. Double Displacement Reaction

​The reactions in which there is an exchange of ions between the reactants are
called double displacement reactions.
​For example, let's see a precipitation reaction.

​Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

​Here, the white precipitate of BaSO4 is formed by the reaction of SO42- and
Ba2+ or we can say due to the exchange of ions.
​Hence, this is displacement reaction.

​5. Oxidation and Reduction:

​LET US SEE AN EXAMPLE:
​2Cu + O2 Heat→ 2CuO
​CuO +H2 Heat→ Cu+H2O

​If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised.

​If a substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be reduced.
​During the second reaction, the copper oxide is losing oxygen and is being
reduced.
​The hydrogen is gaining oxygen and is being oxidized.
​Hence point to note is that one reactant gets oxidized while the other gets
reduced during a reaction.
​Such reactions are called oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions.

​Some examples of redox reactions are:

​ZnO + C → Zn +CO
​MnO+ 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2

​If a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen during a reaction, it is

oxidized.
​If a substance loses oxygen or gains hydrogen during a reaction, it is reduced.

​EFFECTS OF OXIDATION REACTIONS IN DAY TO DAY LIFE

​a. Corrosion:
​We have observed in our daily life that iron material are shiny when new but
get coated with a reddish brown powder when left for some time.
​This process is known as rusting of iron.

​When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as moisture, acids,

etc., it is said to corrode and this process is called corrosion.
​The black coating on silver and the green coating on copper are also due to
corrosion.

​Corrosion causes damage to:

​car bodies, bridges, iron railings and to all objects made of metals, specially
iron.
​You know that huge amount of money is spent to replace the damaged iron
due to corrosion, so it's quite a problem.

​b. Rancidity:
​The taste or smell of the fat or oil containing food materials left for a long
time, that is the rancidity.
​When fats and oils are oxidized, they become rancid and their smell and taste
change.

​Usually substances which prevent oxidation (antioxidants) are added to foods

containing fats and oil.
​Keeping food in air tight containers helps to slow down oxidation.

​THE CONCLUSION
​1. A complete chemical equation represents the reactants, products and their
physical states symbolically.
​2. A chemical equation is balanced so that the numbers of atoms of each type
involved in a chemical reaction are the same on the
​reactant and product sides of the equation. Equations must always be
balanced.
​3. In a combination reaction two or more substances combine to form a new
single substance.
​4. Decomposition reactions are opposite to combination reactions.
​In a decomposition reaction, a single substance decomposes to give two or
more substances.

​5. Reactions in which heat is given out along with the products are called
exothermic reactions.
​6. Reactions in which energy is absorbed are known as endothermic
reactions.

​7. When an element displaces another element from its compound, a

displacement reaction occurs.
​8. Two different atoms or groups of atoms (ions) are exchanged in double
displacement reactions.

​9. Precipitation reactions produce insoluble salts.

​10. Reactions also involve the gain or loss of oxygen or hydrogen by
substances.

​11. Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen. Reduction is the loss
of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.
Topic:60
Acids, Bases and Salts
Properties of Acids:
​Produce hydrogen ions [H+] in H2O.
​a. Sour taste.
​b. Turn blue litmus red.

​c. Act as electrolytes in Solution.

​d. Neutralize solutions carrying hydroxide ions.
​e. React with several metals releasing Hydrogen gas.
​f. React with carbonates releasing CO2 (g)
​g. Destroy body tissues.
​h. corrode metal surface quickly.

​On the basis of origin

​On the basis of origin, acids are classified as:
​a. Organic acids:
​Acids derived from living organisms like plants and animals.
​For example: citric acid is present in fruits, acetic acid present in vinegar,
oxalic acid present in tomato, tartaric acid present in tamarind,
​lactic acid present in sour milk and curd.

​b. Mineral acids:

​They are also called inorganic acids.
​They are dangerous Example sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid
(HCl) etc.

​On the basis of their strength

​On the basis of their strength, acids are classified as:
​a. Strong acids:
​Completely dissociate into its ions in aqueous solutions.
​Example: Nitric acid (HNO3), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid
(HCl).

​b. Weak acids:

​Weak acids are those acids which do not completely dissociate into
​its ions in aqueous solutions. For example: carbonic acid (H2CO), acetic acid
(CH3COOH).

​On the basis of their concentration

​On the basis of their concentration, acids are classified as :
​a. Dilute acids:
​Have a low concentration of acids in aqueous solutions.

​b. Concentrated acids:

​Have a high concentration of acids in aqueous solutions.

​On the basis of number of hydrogen ion

​On the basis of number of hydrogen ion, acids can be classified as:
​Monoprotic acid:
​Such type of acid produces one mole of H+ ions per mole of acid, e.g., HCl ,
HNO3

​Diprotic acid:
​They can produce two moles of H+ ions per mole of acid, e.g., H2SO4.

​Triprotic acid:
​They produce three moles of H+ ions per mole of acid, e.g., H3PO4.

​Polyprotic:
​They can produce more than three H+ ions per mole of acid.

​Properties of Base:
​Produce hydroxide ions [OH –] in H2O.
​a. Water soluble bases are called alkalies.
​b. Bitter Taste

​c. Turn Red Litmus blue.

​d. Act as electrolytes in Solution.
​e. Neutralize solutions containing H+ ions.

​f. Have a slippery, ‘soapy’ feel.

​g. Dissolve fatty material.

​On the basis of strength

​On the basis of their strength, bases are classified as:
​a. Strong bases:
​Strong bases are those bases which completely dissociate into its ions in
aqueous solutions.
​Example: sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH).

​b. Weak bases:

​Weak bases are those bases which do not completely dissociate into its ions
in aqueous solutions.
​For example: ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH).

​On the basis of concentration

​On the basis of their concentration, bases are classified as:
​a. Dilute bases:
​Have a low concentration of alkali in aqueous solutions.

​b. Concentrated bases:

​Have a high concentration of alkali in aqueous solutions.

​Strength Of Acid Or Base Solutions:

​A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is called pH
scale.
​The p in pH is ‘potenz’ in German which means power.
​p= potential or Power
​H = Hydrogen

​pH =7 is a Neutral Solution where H3O+ = OH–

​pH > 7 is a Basic Solution H3O+ < OH–
​pH <7 is an Acidic Solution H3O+ > OH–
​pH Sensitivity of Plants & Animals:
​Human body works in a narrow range of pH 7 to 7.8.
​Acidity can be lethal for plants and animals.

​pH of Digestive System:

​Stomach secretes HCl to kill bacteria in the food.
​The inner lining of stomach protects vital cells from this acidic pH.

​pH and tooth decay:

​Lower pH because of sour food and sweet food can cause tooth decay.
​The pH of mouth should always be more than 5.5.

​pH as self defense mechanism in plants & animals: Certain animals like bee
and plants like nettle secrete highly acidic substance for self defense.

​Properties of salts:
​Salts form by the combination of acid and base through neutralization
reaction.
​The acidic and basic nature of salts depends on the acid and base combined in
neutralization reaction.

​Acid Base Salt Example

​Strong Strong Neutral NaOH + HCl + → NaCl + H2O
​Strong Weak Acidic HCl + NH4OH → NH4Cl + H2O
​Weak Weak Basic CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
​Weak Weak Neutral CH3OOH + NH4OH → CH3COONH4 + H2O
​The most common salt is sodium chloride or table salt which forms by the
combination of sodium hydroxide (base) and hydrochloric acid.
​Other examples include Epsom salts (MgSO4) used in bath salts, ammonium
nitrate (NH4NO3 ) used as fertilizer, and baking soda (NaHCO3) used in
cooking.
​The pH of salts solution depends on the strength of acids and base combined
in neutralization reaction.
​Indicators:
​Indicators are substances which indicate the acidic or basic nature of the
solution by their colour change.

​The colour of acid – base indicators in acidic and basic medium

​Indicators Colour in acidic medium Colour in basic medium
​Litmus solution Red Blue
​Methyl Orange Pink Orange
​Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
​Methyl red Yellow Red
​Chemical properties of acids:
​i) Acids react with active metals to give hydrogen gas.
​Zn + H2SO3 →ZnSO4 + H2

​ii) Acids react with metal carbonate and metal hydrogen carbonate to give
carbon dioxide.
​NaHCO3 +HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2

​iii) Acids react with bases to give salt and water.

​This reaction is called as neutralization reaction
​NaOH + HCl → NaCl +H2O

​iv) Acids react with metals oxides to give salt and water.
​CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O

​Addition of Acids or Bases to Water

​The process of dissolving an acid, specially nitric acid or sulfuric acid or a
base in water is a highly exothermic one.
​As a rule: Always add acid to water and never the other way!
​The acid must be added slowly to water with constant stirring.
​If one mixes the other way by adding water to a concentrated acid, the heat
generated causes the mixture to splash out and cause burns.

​Chemical properties of Bases

​i) Reaction with Metals:
​Certain reactive metals such as Zinc, Aluminium, and Tin react with alkali
solutions on heating and hydrogen gas is evolved.
​2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 +H2

​ii) Reaction with acids:

​Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
​KOH +HCl → KCl +H2O

​iii) Reaction with Non -metallic oxides:

​These oxides are generally acidic in nature.
​They react with bases to form salt and water.
​2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O

​Important Chemical Compounds

​a. Common Salt (NaCl):
​Sodium chloride is known as common salt. Its main source is sea water. It is
also exists in the form of rocks and is called rock salt.
​Common salt is an important component of our food. It is also used for
preparing sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda etc.

​b. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH):

​Prepared by Chlor Alkali process :
​Electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of Sodium chloride (called
brine).
​Sodium chloride decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. Chlorine gas is
formed at the anode, and hydrogen gas at the cathode.
​Sodium hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode.

​2NaCl(aq) + 2 H2O (l) → 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g)

​c. Bleaching powder:

​Bleaching powder is represented as CaOCl2, though the actual composition is
quite complex.
​Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime.
​Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2+ H2O

​d. Baking soda:

​Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) Preparation:
​NaCl + H2O + CO2+ NH3 → NH4Cl + NaHCO3

​e. Washing soda:

​Sodium carbonate N2CO3.10H2. In the first step, sodium carbonate is
obtained by heating baking soda.
​2 NaHCO3(heat) →Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

​Then washing sod a is produced by recrystallisation of sodium carbonate:

​Na2CO3 + 10H2O → Na2CO3 .10H2O

​f. Plaster of Paris:

​Calcium sulphate hemihydrate CaSO4. ½ H2O is Prepared by heating
Gypsum at 373K.
​CaSO4. 2H2O(Heat at 373K) → CaSO4. ½ H2O + 1½ H2O

Topic:61
​Metals and Non-metals
​PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Metals:
​Daily used/Common metals: Iron, copper, aluminium, magnesium, sodium,
lead, zinc etc.

​Metals, in their pure state, have a shining surface. This property is called
metallic lustre.
​Metals are generally hard. The hardness varies from metal to metal.
​Some metals can be beaten into thin sheets.
​This property is called malleability.

​The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility.

​Gold is the most ductile metal.
​Because of their malleability and ductility that metals can be given different
shapes according to our needs.
​Metals are good conductors of heat and have high melting points.
​The best conductors of heat are silver and copper.
​Lead and mercury are comparatively poor conductors of heat.
​The metals that produce a sound on striking a hard surface are said to be
sonorous and that is the reason that school bells are made of metals.

​Non-metals:
​Some of the examples of non-metals are carbon, sulphur, iodine, oxygen,
hydrogen, etc.
​The non-metals are either solids or gases except bromine which is a liquid.

​(i) All metals except mercury exist as solids at room temperature.

​Metals have high melting points but gallium and caesium have very low
melting points.
​These two metals will melt if you keep them on your palm.

​(ii) Iodine is a non-metal but it is lustrous.

​iii) Carbon is a non-metal that can exist in different forms. Each form is
called an allotrope.
​Diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is the hardest natural substance known and
has a very high melting and boiling point.
​Graphite, another allotrope of carbon, is a conductor of electricity.

​(iv) Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium) are so soft that they can be
cut with a knife.
​They have low densities and low melting points.
​Hence the conclusion is that the elements can be more clearly classified as
metals and non-metals on the basis of their chemical properties.
​Most non-metals produce acidic oxides when dissolve in water whereas most
metals give rise to basic oxides.

​Physical and chemical properties

​Comparison of physical and chemical properties of metals and non – metals:
​Property Metals Non-Metals
​Melting and boiling points Metals generally have high m.pt and b.pt except
gallium and cesium. Non-metals have low m.pt and b.pt except diamond and
graphite.
​Density Generally high. Generally low
​Malleability and Ductility Malleable and ductile. Neither malleable nor
ductile.
​Electrical and thermal conductivity Good conductors of heat and electricity.
Generally poor conductors of heat and electricity except graphite
​Luster Poses shining luster Do not have luster except iodine
​Sonorous sound Give sonorous sound when struck. Does not give sonorous
sound.
​Hardness Generally hard except Na, K Solid non-metals are generally soft
except diamond
​Comparison of Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals
​Comparison of physical and chemical properties of metals and non – metals:
​Reaction Metals Non-Metals
​Reaction with Oxygen Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
​4Na(s) + O2(g) →2Na2O(s)
​4Al(s) + 3O2(g) →2Al2O3
​Metals form basic oxides
​Zn and Al form amphoteric oxides (they show the properties of both acidic
and basic oxides)
​Most of the metal oxides are insoluble in water Some of them dissolve to
form Alkali
​Na2O(s) + H2O(l) →2NaOH(aq) Non-metal + Oxygen →Non-metal oxide
​C + O2 →CO2
​S + O2 →SO2

​Non-metals form acidic oxides

​CO and HO2O are neutral oxides(they are neither acidic nor basic in nature)
Non- metal oxides are soluble in water.
​They dissolve in water to form acids
​SO2 + H2O →H2SO3
​Reaction with water Metals react with water to form metal oxides or metal
hydroxide and H2 gas is released.
​2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) →2NaOH + H2(g) + heat Non-metals do not react with
water, steam to evolve hydrogen gas.
​Because Non-metals cannot give electrons to hydrogen in water so that it can
be released as H2 gas.
​Reaction with dilute Acids Metal + Acid → Metal salt + Hydrogen
​HCl
​Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)→ MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

​H2SO4
​2Na(s) + H2SO2→ Na2SO4(aq) +H2(g)

​HNO3
​Metal + HNO3→ H2 gas is not displaced.
​Reason- HNO3 is strong oxidizing agent. Non-metals do not react with acids
to release H2 gas.
​Reason: Non-metals cannot loose electrons and give it to Hydrogen ions of
acids so that the gas is released.
​Mn + 2HNO3→ Mn(NO3)2 + H2
​H2 gas from HNO3
​Reaction with salt solutions When metals react with salt solution, more
reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its salt solution.
​CuSO4(aq) + n(s)→ ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s When non-metals react with salt
solution, more reactive non-metal will displace a less reactive non-metal from
its salt solution.
​2NaBr(aq) + Cl2(g)→ 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)s
​Reaction with Chlorine Metal + Chlorine→ Metal Chloride ionic bond is
formed. Therefore Ionic compound is obtained.
​2Na+ Cl2 → 2NaCl Non-metal + Chlorine→Non-metal Chloride covalent
bond is formed. Therefore covalent compound is obtained.
​H2(g) + Cl2 → 2HCl
​Reaction with Hydrogen Metals react with hydrogen to form metal hydride
This reaction takes place only for most reactive metals.
​2Na(s)+ H2(g) → 2NaH(s) Non-metals react with hydrogen to form hydrides.
​H2(g) + S(l) → H2S(g)
​Properties of ionic compounds
​1. Physical nature:
​Solid and hard due to strong force of attraction.(generally brittle)

​.Melting point and boiling point:

​Have high M.P and B.P, as large amount of heat energy is required to break
strong ionic attraction.

​3. Solubility:
​Soluble in water and insoluble in kerosene and pertrol.

​4. Conduction of electricity:

​Ionic compounds in solid state does not conduct electricity.
​The reason behind this is ions can not move due to rigid solid structure. Ionic
compounds conduct electricity in molten state.
​Also ions can move freely since the electrostatic forces of attraction between
the oppositely charged ions are overcome due to heat.
10-4
​Carbon and its Compounds
​BONDING IN CARBON – THE COVALENT BOND
​Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity.
​The carbon compounds have low melting and boiling points as compared to
ionic compounds as the forces of attraction between the molecules are not
very strong.

​The atomic number of carbon is 6.

​We know that the reactivity of elements is explained as their tendency to
attain a completely filled outer shell, that is, attain noble gas configuration.
​Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing
electrons from the outermost shell.
​Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four
electrons to attain noble gas configuration.

​If it were to gain or lose electrons:

​i) If carbon gains four electrons forming C4– anion, it would be difficult for
the nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons.
​(ii) If it looses four electrons forming C4+ cation ,it would require a large
amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation
​with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two electrons.

​Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other
atoms of carbon or with atoms of other elements.
​Along with Carbon, there are many other elements forming molecules by
sharing electrons in this way.
​The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outermost shells of both the atoms and
lead to both atoms attaining the noble gas configuration.

​Let us see on example:

​The atomic number of hydrogen is 1.
​Hence hydrogen has one electron in its K shell and it requires one more
electron to fill the K shell.
​So two hydrogen atoms share their electrons to form a molecule of hydrogen,
H2.
​This allows each hydrogen atom to attain the electronic configuration of the
nearest noble gas, helium, which has two electrons in its K shell.
​A single covalent bond is represented by a line between the two atoms.

​In the case of oxygen, there is a formation of double bond between two
oxygen atoms.
​The atomic number of oxygen = 8
​No. of electrons in last (L in case of Oxygen) = 6
​No. of electrons required (to complete octed state) = 2

​Hence, each atom of oxygen shares two electrons with another atom of
oxygen to oxygen molecule.
​The two electrons contributed by each oxygen atom give rise to two shared
pairs of electrons and this is called as double bond between the two atoms.

​Example of triple bond:

​The atomic number of Nitrogen = 7
​No. of electrons in last(L in case of Oxygen) = 5
​No. of electrons required (to complete octed state) = 3

​In order to attain an octet, each nitrogen atom in a molecule of nitrogen

contributes three electrons giving rise to three shared pairs of electrons.
​This is called as triple bond between the two atoms.

​VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

​The nature of the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large number of
compounds.
​Two factors noticed in the case of carbon are:
​(i) Carbon have the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon,
giving rise to large molecules.
​This property is called catenation.
​These compounds may have long chains of carbon, branched chains of
carbon or even carbon atoms arranged in rings.

​Also, carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds.

​Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single bonds between the
carbon atoms are called saturated compounds.
​Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between their carbon
atoms are called unsaturated compounds.
​The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence stable.

​(ii) Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four
other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
​Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur,
chlorine and many other elements giving rise to compounds with specific
properties which depend
​on the elements other than carbon present in the molecule.

​Point to Remember
​The main reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size
which enables the nucleus to hold on to the shared pairs of electrons
strongly.
​The bonds formed by elements having bigger atoms are much weaker.

​Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

​There are few steps to follow to make the structure of simple carbon
compounds which are mentioned below making the structure of ethane:
​Molecular formula of ethane = C2H6.
​Step 1:
​Link the carbon atoms together with a single bond as shown below:
​C—C

​Step 2:
​Use the hydrogen atoms to satisfy the remaining valencies of carbon:

​Chains, Branches and Rings

​Formulae and structures of saturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen.

​Compounds with identical molecular formula but different structures are

called structural isomers.
​The structures of butane can be written as:

​Bonding of Carbon with other compounds

​Not only with Hydrogen, Carbon forms bonds with other elements like
halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
​In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogens can be replaced by these
elements, such that the valency of carbon remains satisfied.
​In such compounds, the element replacing hydrogen is referred to as a
heteroatom.

​Some functional groups in carbon compounds are given in the table below:

​Homologous Series
​Carbon atoms can be linked together to form chains of varying lengths.
​These chains can be branched also.

​Hydrogen atom or other atoms on these carbon chains can be replaced by any
of the functional groups.
​The presence of a functional group such as alcohol decides the properties of
the carbon compound, regardless of the length of the carbon chain.
​For example, the chemical properties of CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH and
C4H9OH are very similar.
​Hence, such a series of compounds in which the same functional group
substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.

​Let us see the formulae of successive compounds like the one mentioned
below:
​CH4 and C2H6: these differ by a –CH2- unit
​C2H6 and C3H8 — these differ by a –CH2- unit.

​Similarly, take the homologous series for alkenes.

​The first member of the series is ethene.
​The succeeding members have the formula C3H6, C4H8 and C5H10.

​Gradation in physical properties is seen because the melting and boiling

points increase with increasing molecular mass, there is a gradation in
physical properties.
​Other physical properties such as solubility in a particular solvent also show a
similar gradation.
​But the chemical properties, which are determined by the functional group,
remain similar in a homologous series.

​Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

​The names of compounds in a homologous series are based on the name of
the basic carbon chain modified by a “prefix” “phrase before”
​or “suffix” “phrase after” indicating the nature of the functional group.
​For example, the names of the alcohols are methanol, ethanol, propanol and
butanol.

​Naming a carbon compound can be done by the following method:

​(i) Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound.
​A compound having three carbon atoms would have the name propane.

​(ii) In case a functional group is present, it is indicated in the name of the

compound with either a prefix or a suffix.
​(iii) If the name of the functional group is to be given as a suffix, and the
suffix of the functional group begins with a vowel a, e, i, o, u, then
​the name of the carbon chain is modified by deleting the final ‘e’ and adding
the appropriate suffix.

​For example, a three-carbon chain with a ketone group would be named in

the following manner:
​Propane – ‘e’ = propan + ‘one’ = propanone.

​(iv) If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the final ‘ane’ in the name of the
carbon chain is substituted by ‘ene’ or ‘yne’.
​For example, a three-carbon chain with a double bond would be called
propene and if it has a triple bond, it would be called propyne.

​CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS

​Combustion
​Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide
along with the release of heat and light.
​Most carbon compounds also release a large amount of heat and light on
burning.
​These are the oxidation reactions:

​(i) C + O2 → CO2 + heat and light

​(ii) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
​(iii) CH3CH2OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
​We hope you can balance the above unbalanced equation if any with a
knowledge of whow to balance the chemical equation.
​Saturated hydrocarbons will give a clean flame while unsaturated carbon
compounds will give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke.
​However, limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of even
saturated hydrocarbons giving a sooty flame.
​The gas/kerosene stove used at home has inlets for air so that a sufficiently
oxygen-rich mixture is burnt to give a clean blue flame.

​The cooking vessels getting blackene is due to the reason that the air holes
are blocked and fuel is getting wasted.
​Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and sulphur
in them.
​Their combustion results in the formation of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
which are major pollutants in the environment.

​Oxidation
​Carbon compounds can be easily oxidized on combustion.
​In addition to this complete oxidation, we have reactions in which alcohols
are converted to carboxylic acids:

​Some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others.

​These substances are known as oxidizing agents.

​Alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate are

oxidizing alcohols to acids, that is, adding oxygen to the starting material.
​Hence they are known as oxidizing agents.

​Addition Reaction
​Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceed at a
different rate without the reaction itself being affected.
​This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils using
a nickel catalyst.
​Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal
fats have saturated carbon chains.

​Substitution Reaction
​Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the presence of
most reagents.
​However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a
very fast reaction.

​Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one.

​It is called a substitution reaction because one type of atom or a group of
atoms takes the place of another.
​A number of products are usually formed with the higher homologues of
alkanes.
​CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)

​SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS – ETHANOL AND

ETHANOIC ACID
​Properties of Ethanol
​Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature (refer to Table 4.1 for the melting and
boiling points of ethanol).
​Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of all
alcoholic drinks.
​Because ethanol is a good solvent, it is also used in medicines such as
tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics.

​Ethanol is also soluble in water in all proportions.

​Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness.
​However, intake of even a small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute
alcohol) can be lethal.
​Also, we all know that the consumption of alcohol leads to many health
problems but people still use it; that's the worse part;
ISN'T IT ?
​Reactions of Ethanol:
​(i) Reaction with sodium:
​2Na + 2CH3CH2OH → 2CH3CH2O–Na+ + H2
​Here, CH3CH2O–Na+ = Sodium ethoxide

​Alcohols react with sodium leading to the evolution of hydrogen.

​With ethanol, the other product is sodium ethoxide.

​(ii) Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon:

​Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in
the dehydration of ethanol to give ethene:

​Here,the concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating agent

which removes water from ethanol.

​Properties of Ethanoic Acid

​Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids
called carboxylic acids.
5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a
preservative in pickles.

​The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes
during winter in cold climates.
​This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.

​The group of organic compounds called carboxylic acids are obviously

characterised by their acidic nature.
​However, unlike mineral acids like HCl, which are completely ionised,
carboxylic acids are weak acids.

​Reactions of ethanoic acid:

​(i) Esterification reaction:
​Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol.
​Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst
to give an ester:

​Generally, esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making

perfumes and as flavouring agents.

​On treating with sodium hydroxide, which is an alkali, the ester is converted
back to alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid.
​This reaction is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation
of soap.

​Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid.

​(ii) Reaction with a base:

​Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium
hydroxide to give a salt (sodium ethanoate or commonly called sodium
acetate) and water:
​NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O

​iii) Reaction with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates:

​Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to give rise to a
salt, carbon dioxide and water.
​The salt produced is commonly called sodium acetate.
​2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
​CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

​SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

​Most dirt is oily in nature and oil does not dissolve in water.
​The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic
acids.

​The ionic-end of soap interacts with water while the carbon chain interacts
with oil.
​The soap molecules, thus form structures called micelles where one end of
the molecules is towards the oil droplet while the ionic-end faces outside.
​This forms an emulsion in water.
​The soap micelle thus helps in pulling out the dirt in water and we can wash
our clothes clean while bathing that foam is formed with
​difficulty and an insoluble substance (scum) remains after washing with
water and this is caused by the reaction of soap with the calcium and
​magnesium salts, which cause the hardness of water.

​This problem is overcome by using another class of compounds called

detergents as cleansing agents.
​Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts
with chlorides or bromides ions, etc.
​Both have long hydrocarbon chain.

​The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates with
the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.
​Thus, they remain effective in hard water.
​Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and products for cleaning
clothes.
​IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER
​1. Carbon is a versatile element that forms the basis for all living organisms
and many of the things we use.
​2. This large variety of compounds is formed by carbon because of its
tetravalency and the property of catenation that it exhibits.

​3. Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms
so that both can achieve a completely filled outermost shell.
​4. Carbon forms covalent bonds with itself and other elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine.

​5. Carbon also forms compounds containing double and triple bonds between
carbon atoms.
​These carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains
or rings.

​6. The ability of carbon to form chains gives rise to a homologous series of
compounds in which the same functional group is attached to carbon chains
of different lengths.
​7.Carbon and its compounds are some of our major sources of fuels.
​8. Ethanol and ethanoic acid are carbon compounds of importance in our
daily lives.

​9. The action of soaps and detergents is based on the presence of both
hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups in the molecule and this helps to
emulsify the oily dirt and hence its removal.
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Topic:62
Periodic Classification of Elements
INTRODUCTION
​At present, 118 elements are known to us. All these have ddifferent
properties.
​Out of 118 elements, only 94 are naturally occurring.

EARLY ATTEMPTS AT THE CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

​Scientists made several attempts to classify elements according to their
properties and obtain an orderly arrangement out of chaos.
​The earliest attempt to classify the elements resulted in grouping the then
known elements as metals and non-metals.
​Later further classifications were tried out as our knowledge of elements and
their properties increased.

​Döbereiner’s Triads
​In the year 1817, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, a German chemist , tried to
arrange the elements with similar properties into groups.
​He identified some groups having three elements each.
​So he called these groups ‘triads’.

​Döbereiner could identify only three triads from the elements known at that
time.
​Hence, this system of classification into triads was not found to be useful.

​Newlands’ Law of Octaves

​In 1866, John Newlands, an English scientist, arranged the then known
elements in the order of increasing atomic masses.
​He started with the element having the lowest atomic mass (hydrogen) and
ended at thorium which was the 56th element.

​He found that every eighth element had properties similar to that of the first.
​He compared this to the octaves found in music.
​Therefore, he called it the ‘Law of Octaves’.
​It is known as ‘Newlands’ Law of Octaves’.
​In Newlands’ Octaves, the properties of lithium and sodium were found to be
the same.

​Sodium is the eighth element after lithium.

​Similarly, beryllium and magnesium resemble each other.

​It was found that the Law of Octaves was applicable only upto calcium, as
after calcium every eighth element did not possess properties similar to that
of the first.
​It was assumed by Newlands that only 56 elements existed in nature and no
more elements would be discovered in the future.
​But, later on, several new elements were discovered, whose properties did not
fit into the Law of Octaves.
​The conclusion was that the Newlands’ Law of Octaves worked well with
lighter elements only.

​MENDELÉEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

​Please have a reference periodic table while studying this as it was not
possible to integrate the table in the notes. Apologize for any inconvenience.
​Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev, a Russian chemist was the most important
contributor to the early development of a Periodic Table of elements wherein
the
​elements were arranged on the basis of their fundamental property, the atomic
mass, and also on the similarity of chemical properties.

​When Mendeléev started his work, 63 elements were known.

​He examined the relationship between the atomic masses of the elements and
their physical and chemical properties.
​Among chemical properties, Mendeléev concentrated on the compounds
formed by elements with oxygen and hydrogen.
​He selected hydrogen and oxygen as they are very reactive and formed
compounds with most elements.
​The formulae of the hydrides and oxides formed by an element were treated
as one of the basic properties of an element for its classification.
​He then took 63 cards and on each card he wrote down the properties of one
element.
​He sorted out the elements with similar properties and pinned the cards
together on a wall.

​He observed that most of the elements got a place in a Periodic Table and
were arranged in the order of their increasing atomic masses.
​It was also observed that there occurs a periodic recurrence of elements with
similar physical and chemical properties.

​On this basis,

​Mendeléev formulated a Periodic Law, which states that ‘the properties of
elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses’.
​Mendeléev’s Periodic Table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’ and
horizontal rows called ‘periods’.

​Achievements of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table

​While developing the Periodic Table, there were a few instances where
Mendeléev had to place an element with a slightly greater atomic mass before
an
​element with a slightly lower atomic mass.

​The sequence was inverted so that elements with similar properties could be
grouped together.
​For example, cobalt (atomic mass 58.9) appeared before nickel (atomic
mass 58.7).

​Further, Mendeléev left some gaps in his Periodic Table.

​Mendeléev predicted the existence of some elements that had not been
discovered at that time.
​Mendeléev named them by prefixing a Sanskrit numeral, Eka (one) to the
name of preceding element in the same group.

​This provided convincing evidence for both the correctness and usefulness of
Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.
​Further, Noble gases like helium (He), neon (Ne) and argon (Ar) were
discovered very late because they are very inert and present in extremely low
concentrations in our atmosphere.
​One of the strengths of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table was that, when these
gases were discovered, they could be placed in a new group without
disturbing the existing order.

​Limitations of Mendeléev’s Classification

​Electronic configuration of hydrogen resembles that of alkali metals.
​Like alkali metals, hydrogen combines with halogens, oxygen and sulphur to
form compounds having similar formulae, as shown in the examples here.

​On the other hand, just like halogens, hydrogen also exists as diatomic
molecules and it combines with metals and non-metals to form Certainly,
​no fixed position can be given to hydrogen in the Periodic Table and this was
the first limitation of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.

​He could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in his Table.

​Isotopes were discovered long after Mendeléev had proposed his periodic
classification of elements.
​The isotopes of an element have similar chemical properties, but different
atomic masses.
​Thus, isotopes of all elements posed a challenge to Mendeleev’s Periodic
Law.

​Another problem was that the atomic masses do not increase in a regular
manner in going from one element to the next.
​So it was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered
between two elements — especially on heavier elements.
​THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
​In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number of an element is a
more fundamental property than its atomic mass.
​Mendeléev’s Periodic Law was modified and atomic number was adopted as
the basis of Modern Periodic Table and the Modern Periodic Law is stated as:
​‘Properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number.’

​The atomic number gives us the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
and this number increases by one in going from one element to the next.
​Elements, when arranged in order of increasing atomic number, lead us to the
classification known as the Modern Periodic Table.
​Prediction of properties of elements could be made with more precision when
elements were arranged on the basis of increasing atomic number.
​The Modern Periodic Table overcomes three limitations of Mendléev’s
Periodic Table.

​Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table

​The Modern Periodic Table has 18 vertical columns known as ‘groups’ and 7
horizontal rows known as ‘periods’ .
​Placing of an element in a certain group and period.
​Elements present in any one group have the same number of valence
electrons.
​For example, elements fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl), belong to group 17.
​Hence, we can say that groups in the Periodic Table signify an identical
outershell electronic configuration.

​On the other hand, the number of shells increases as we go down the group.
​There is an anomaly when it comes to the position of hydrogen because it can
be placed either in group 1 or group 17 in the first period.
​These elements of second period do not have the same number of valence
electrons, but they contain the same number of shells.
​The number of valence shell electrons increases by one unit, as the atomic
number increases by one unit on moving from left to right in a period.
​Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl and Ar belong to the third period of the Modern
Periodic Table, since the electrons in the atoms of these elements are filled in
K, L and M shells.

​Trends in the Modern Periodic Table

​Valency:
​The valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons
present in the outermost shell of its atom.

​Atomic size:
​The term atomic size refers to the radius of an atom.
​The atomic size is the distance between the centre of the nucleus and the
outermost shell of an isolated atom.
​The atomic radius of hydrogen atom is 37 pm (picometre, 1 pm = 10–12m).

​The atomic radius decreases in moving from left to right along a period.
​This is due to an increase in nuclear charge which tends to pull the electrons
closer to the nucleus and reduces the size of the atom.
​Atomic size increases down the group because new shells are being added as
we go down the group.
​This increases the distance between the outermost electrons and the nucleus
so that the atomic size increases in spite of the increase in nuclear charge.

​Metallic and Non-metallic Properties

​The metals like Na and Mg are towards the left-hand side of the Periodic
Table while the non-metals like sulphur and chlorine are found on the right-
hand side.
​In the middle is silicon, which is classified as a semi-metal or metalloid
because it exhibits some properties of both metals and non-metals.

​In the Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line separates metals from non-
metals.
​The borderline elements – boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony,
tellurium and polonium – are intermediate in properties and are called
metalloids or semi-metals.

​Metals tend to lose electrons while forming bonds, that is, they are
electropositive in nature.
​As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell electrons increases
across a period, the tendency to lose electrons will decrease.
​Down the group, the effective nuclear charge experienced by valence
electrons is decreasing because the outermost electrons are farther away from
the nucleus.
​Therefore, these can be lost easily.
​Hence metallic character decreases across a period and increases down a
group.

​Non-metals are electronegative.

​They tend to form bonds by gaining electrons.
​As the trends in the electronegativity show, non-metals are found on the
right-hand side of the Periodic Table towards the top.
​These trends also help us to predict the nature of oxides formed by the
elements because it is known that the oxides of metals are basic and that of
non-metals are acidic in general.

​Main Points to Remember

​Elements are classified on the basis of similarities in their properties.
​2. Döbereiner grouped the elements into triads and Newlands gave the Law
of Octaves.

​3. Mendeléev arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic

masses and according to their chemical properties.
​4. Mendeléev even predicted the existence of some yet to be discovered
elements on the basis of gaps in his Periodic Table.
​5. Anomalies in arrangement of elements based on increasing atomic mass
could be removed when the elements were arranged in order of increasing
atomic number,
​a fundamental property of the element discovered by Moseley.

​6. Elements in the Modern Periodic Table are arranged in 18 vertical columns
called groups and 7 horizontal rows called periods.
​7. Elements thus arranged show periodicity of properties including atomic
size, valency or combining capacity and metallic and non-metallic character.
Topic:63
​Life Processes
Introduction to Life Processes
The maintenance functions of living organisms must go on even when they
are not doing anything particular.
​The processes which together perform maintenance functions job are life
processes.

​The energy needed for the maintenance process comes from outside the body
of the individual organism.
​So there must be a process to transfer a source of energy from outside the
body of the organism, i.e. food, to the inside, a process called as nutrition.
​Because the life on earth depends on carbon based molecules, most of these
food sources are also carbon-based.
​Depending on the complexity of these carbon sources, different organisms
can then use different kinds of nutritional processes.

​The sources of energy must be broken down or built up in the body and
converted to a uniform source of energy that can be used for the various
molecular movements needed for
​maintaining living structures, as well as to the kind of molecules the body
needs to grow.
​For this, a series of chemical reactions in the body are necessary.
​Oxidizing-reducing reactions are the most common chemical means to break-
down molecules.

​The process of acquiring oxygen from outside the body, and to use it in the
process of break-down of food sources for cellular needs is known as
respiration.
​Whereas in a single-celled organism, there are no specific organs for taking
in food, exchange of gases or removal of wastes may be needed because
​the entire surface of the organism is in contact with the environment.

​In multi-cellular organisms, all the cells may not be in direct contact with the
surrounding environment.
​Hence there is a need for a transportation system for carrying food and
oxygen from one place to another in the body.
​When chemical reactions use the carbon source and the oxygen for energy
generation, the by-products are useless and can be harmful as well.

​Hence the waste byproducts are needed to be removed from the body and
discarded outside by a process called excretion.

​NUTRITION
​We need materials from outside in order to grow, develop, synthesis protein
and other substances needed in the body.
​This source of energy and materials is the food we eat.

​The general requirement for energy and materials is similar in all organisms
but it is fulfilled in different ways.
​Some organisms use simple food material obtained from inorganic sources in
the form of carbon dioxide and water.
​These organisms are the autotrophs which include green plants and some
bacteria.
​Other organisms utilize complex substances.
​These complex substances are broken down into simpler form before they are
used for the growth of the body.
​For this mechanism, organisms use bio-catalysts called enzymes.
​Hence , the heterotrophs organism like animals fungi's survival depends
directly or indirectly on autotrophs.

​Autotrophic Nutrition
​Carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic organism are fulfilled by
photosynthesis.
​It is the process by which autotrophs take in substances from the outside and
convert them into stored forms of energy.
​This material is taken in the form of carbon dioxide and water which is
converted into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.

​Carbohydrates are used for providing energy to the plant.

​The carbohydrates are not used immediately and are stored in the form of
starch, which serves as the internal energy reserve to be when required by the
plant.
​
​The following process occurs during photosynthesis:
​(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
​(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
​(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

​Remember that is not necessary that the above steps take place one after the
other immediately.
​As an example, desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an
intermediate which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll
during the day.
​The leaf contains the green dots called organelles called chloroplasts which
contain chlorophyll.
​Mechanism behind the intake of carbon dioxide by the plants:
​Stomata: Stomata are the tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.
​Huge amounts of gaseous exchange takes place in the leaves through these
pores for photosynthesis.
​The exchange of gases occurs across the surface of stems, roots and leaves as
well.
​Because the large amounts of water can be lost by the stomata, the plant
closes these pores when it does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

​The opening and closing of the pore is a function of the guard cells.
​The guard cells swell when water flows into them which causes stomatal pore
to open.

​Likewise, the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.

​Remember water used in photosynthesis is taken up from the soil by the roots
in terrestrial plants.
​Other materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium are taken up
from the soil.
​Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other
compounds.

​Heterotrophic Nutrition
​The form of nutrition differs depending on the type and availability of food
material as well as how it is obtained by the organism.
​There are different strategies used by which the food is taken in and used by
the organism.

​Some organisms break-down the food material outside the body and then
absorb it.
​Some of them are fungi like bread moulds, yeast and mushrooms.
​While others take in whole material and break it down inside their bodies.
​Some other organisms like cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-
worms.derive nutrition from plants or animals without killing them.

​The way the organisms obtain their Nutrition

​As the food and the way the food is taken is different between the
organisms,the digestive system is also different in various organisms.
​In single-celled organisms, the food may be taken in by the entire surface.
​But as complexity of the organism increases, different parts become
specialized to perform different functions.

​For example, Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions of

the cell surface which fuse over the food particle forming a food-vacuole.
​Inside the food vacuole, complex substances are broken down into simpler
ones which diffuse into the cytoplasm.

​The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and
thrown out.
​In Paramecium, a unicellular organism, the cell has a definite shape and food
is taken in at a specific spot.
​Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia which cover the entire
surface of the cell.

​Nutrition in Human Beings

​Naturally the food has to be processed to generate particles which are small
and of the same texture.
​This is achieved through crushing the food with our teeth.
​Since the lining of the canal is soft, the food is also wetted to make its
passage smooth.

​Our mouth waters when we eat or want to eat something we like very much.
​This is only water but a fluid called saliva secreted by the salivary glands.
​If the food is to be absorbed from the alimentary canal, it has to be broken
into smaller molecules and this is done with the help of biological catalysts
called enzymes.
​The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down
starch. a complex molecule into a simple sugar.
​The food is mixed thoroughly with saliva and moved around the mouth while
chewing by the muscular tongue.
​The lining of canal has muscles that contract rhythmically in order to push
the food forward.

​From the mouth, the food is taken to the stomach through the food-pipe or
oesophagus.
​The stomach is a large organ which expands when food enters it.

​The muscular walls of the stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly with
more digestive juices.
​The digestion in stomach is done by the gastric glands present in the wall of
the stomach.
​These release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called pepsin,
and mucus.
​The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action
of the enzyme pepsin.

​The mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid
under normal conditions.
​The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle which
releases it in small amounts into the small intestine.
​From the stomach, the food enters the small intestine which is the longest
part of the alimentary canal which is fitted into a compact space because of
extensive coiling.

​Herbivores eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to
be digested.
​Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter small
intestine.
​The small intestine is the place for the complete digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats.
​It receives the secretions of the liver and pancreas for this purpose.

​The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to be made alkaline for
the pancreatic enzymes to act.
​Bile juice from the liver makes the food alkaline in addition to acting on fats.
​Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large globules which makes it
difficult for enzymes to act on them.
​Bile salts break them down into smaller globules increasing the efficiency of
enzyme action.

​The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like trypsin
for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats.
​The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice.
​The enzymes present in it finally converted the proteins to amino acids,
complex carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
​Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine. The inner lining of the
small intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi which
increase the surface area for absorption.

​The villi are richly supplied with blood vessels which take the absorbed food
to each and every cell of the body
​and where it is utilized for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the
repair of old tissues.

​The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where its wall absorb
more water from this material.
​The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus.

​The exit of this waste material is done with the help of anal sphincter
RESPIRATION
​The food material taken in during the process of nutrition is used in cells to
provide energy for various life processes.
​Some organisms use oxygen to break-down glucose completely into carbon
dioxide and water, some use other pathways that do not involve oxygen.

​ In all cases, the first step is the break-down of glucose, a six-carbon

molecule, into a three-carbon molecule called pyruvate.
​This process takes place in the cytoplasm.

​Further, the pyruvate may be converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
​This process takes place in yeast during fermentation.
​Since this process takes place in the absence of air (oxygen), it is called
anaerobic respiration.
​Breakdown of pyruvate using oxygen takes place in the mitochondria.
​The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to
synthesise a molecule called ATP which is used to fuel all other activities in
the cell.

​In these processes, ATP is broken down giving rise to a fixed amount of
energy which can drive the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.
​As the aerobic respiration pathway depends on oxygen, aerobic organisms
need to ensure that there is sufficient intake of oxygen.
​A plants exchange gases through stomata, and the large inter-cellular spaces
ensure that all cells are in contact with air.

​Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by diffusion here.

​They can go into cells, or away from them and out into the air.
​The direction of diffusion depends upon the environmental conditions and the
requirements of the plant.

​At night obviously when there is no photosynthesis occurring, CO2

elimination is the major exchange activity going on.
​During the day,CO2 generated during respiration is used up for
photosynthesis, hence there is no CO2 release.
​Infact , oxygen release is the major event at this time.

​Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals
that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
​Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is comparatively low compared to the
amount of oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms
​is much faster than that seen in terrestrial organisms.

​Terrestrial organisms use the oxygen in the atmosphere for respiration.

​This oxygen is absorbed by different organs in different animals.
​All these organs have a structure that increases the surface area which is in
contact with the oxygen-rich atmosphere.

​Since the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide has to take place across
this surface, this surface is very fine and delicate.
​In order to protect this surface, it is usually placed within the body, so there
have to be passages that will take air to this area.
​Also, there is a mechanism for moving the air in and out of this area where
the oxygen is absorbed.

​In human beings, air is taken into the body through the nostrils.
​The air passing through the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that line the
passage.

​The passage is also lined with mucus which helps in this process.
​Now, the air passes through the throat and into the lungs.
​Rings of cartilage are present in the throat which ensure that the air-passage
does not collapse.
​Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which
finally terminate in balloon-like structures which are called alveoli (singular–
alveolus).
​The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take place.

​The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels.

​The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the
alveoli, and the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar
blood vessels
​to be transported to all the cells in the body.

​During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and out, the lungs always
contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to
be absorbed
​and for the carbon dioxide to be released.

​When the body size of animals is large, the diffusion pressure alone cannot
take care of oxygen delivery to all parts of the body and
​the respiratory pigments take up oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry it
to tissues which are deficient in oxygen before releasing it.

​In human beings, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin which has a very
high affinity for oxygen.
​This pigment is present in the red blood corpuscles.

​TRANSPORTATION
​Transportation in Human Beings
​Blood consists of a fluid medium called plasma in which the cells are
suspended.
​Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved
form.

​Oxygen is carried by the red blood corpuscles.

​Many other substances like salts, are also transported by the blood.
​So we need a pumping organ to push blood around the body, a network of
tubes to reach all the tissues and a system in place make sure
​that this network can be repaired if damaged.

​Our pump:The heart

​The heart is a muscular organ which is as big as our fist.
​Because both oxygen and carbon dioxide have to be transported by the blood,
the heart has different chambers to prevent the oxygen-rich blood from
mixing
​with the blood containing carbon dioxide.

​The carbon dioxide-rich blood has to reach the lungs for the carbon dioxide
to be removed, and the oxygenated blood from the lungs has to be brought
back to the heart.
​This oxygen-rich blood is then pumped to the rest of the body.

​Step by step process

​Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs comes to the thin-walled upper chamber of
the heart on the left, the left atrium.
​The left atrium relaxes when it is collecting this blood.
​It then contracts, while the next chamber, the left ventricle, relaxes, so that
the blood is transferred to it.
​When the muscular left ventricle contracts in its turn, the blood is pumped
out to the body.

​De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper chamber on the right,
the right atrium, as it relaxes.
​As the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right
ventricle, dilates.
​This transfers blood to the right ventricle, which in turn pumps it to the lungs
for oxygenation.

​Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs, they have thicker
muscular walls than that of atria.
​Valves make sures that the blood does not flow backwards when the atria or
ventricles contract.

​Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs.

​The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is useful to keep
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing.
​Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body.

​In animals that do not use energy for this purpose, the body temperature
depends on the temperature in the environment.
​Animals like amphibians or many reptiles have three-chambered hearts, and
tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood streams.
​While Fishes have only two chambers to their hearts, and the blood is
pumped to the gills, oxygenated there and passes directly to the rest of the
body.

​Thus, blood goes only once through the heart in the fish during one cycle of
passage through the body.
​Similarly the blood goes through the heart twice during each cycle in other
vertebrates and is known as double circulation.
​The tubes – blood vessels
​Arteries are the vessels which carry blood away from the heart to various
organs of the body.
​Since the blood emerges from the heart under high pressure, the arteries have
thick, elastic walls. Veins collect the blood from different organs and bring it
back to the heart.
​They do not need thick walls because the blood is no longer under pressure,
instead they have valves that ensure that the blood flows only in one
direction.
​On reaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into smaller and smaller
vessels to bring the blood in contact with all the individual cells.

​The smallest vessels have walls which are one-cell thick and are called
capillaries.
​Exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells takes place
across this thin wall.
​After that the capillaries join together to form veins which convey the blood
away from the organ or tissue.

​Maintenance by platelets
​Naturally the loss of blood from the system has to be minimised.
​In addition, leakage will lead to a loss of pressure which will reduce the
efficiency of the pumping system.

​To avoid this, the blood has platelet cells which circulate around the body
and plug these leaks by helping to clot the blood at these points of injury.

​Transportation in Plants
​For plants, the soil is the nearest and richest source of raw materials like
nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals.
​The absorption of these substances occurs through the part in contact with the
soil called as roots.

​If the distances between soil-contacting organs and chlorophyll containing

organs are small, energy and raw materials can easily diffuse to all parts of
the plant body.
​But if these distances become large because of changes in plant body design,
diffusion processes will not be sufficient to provide raw material in leaves
and energy in roots.
​A proper system of transportation will be essential in such situations.
​Plants do not move, and plant bodies have a large proportion of dead cells in
many tissues.

​As a result, plants have low energy needs, and can use slow transport
systems.
​The distances over which transport systems have to operate can be very large
in plants like tall trees.
​Plant transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and raw
materials from roots.
​These two path=======
Topic:64
Control and Coordination
Coordination
​The working together of various organs of the body of an organism in a
proper manner to produce appropriate reaction to a stimulus is called
coordination.
​Stimulus:
​The changes in the environment to which an organism responds and reacts is
called Stimulus.

​Control & coordination in animals- takes place by:

​(i) Nervous system &
​(ii) Endocrine system

​a. Nervous system:

​Stimulus → Receptor organ → Sensory nerve → Brain/Spinal cord
​↓ Response ← Effector organ ← Motor nerve

​b. Endocrine system

​Stimulus → Endocrine organ → Secrete hormone → Hormone in blood↓
​Response ← Target organ

​Parts of the Nervous system

​(i) Brain
​(ii) Spinal cord
​(iii) Nerves (Neurons)

​Parts of a neuron
​(i) Dendrites
​(ii) Cell body
​(iii) Axon

​Synapse:
​Space/junction between two adjacent nerves is called Synapse.

​Passing of information takes place:

​(i) By Electric impulse (inside the neuron) and
​(ii) In the form of chemicals (At synapse)

​Reflex action
​Spontaneous, involuntary and automatic response to a stimulus to protect us
from harmful situations.
​Eg. On touching a hot object unknowingly we instantly withdraw our hand.

​Reflex arc:
​The pathway of the reflex action is called Reflex arc.

​Stimulus → Receptor organ → Sensory nerve → Spinal cord →Effector

organ→ Response

​Nervous system
​(1) Central Nervous system (CNS)
​(2) Peripheral Nervous system(PNS):
​(i) Brain
​(ii) Autonomic Nervous system
​(iii) Spinal cord
​(iv) Voluntary Nervous system

​Brain
​(i) Centre of coordination of all activities
​(ii) Thinking is involved
​(iii) Complex process

​Parts of brain:

​a. Fore brain

​(i) Cerebrum
​(ii) Thalamus
​(iii) Hypothallamus

​b. Mid brain

​c. Hind brain

​(i) Cerebellum
​(ii) Pons
​(iii) Medulla oblongata

​Fore brain Cerebrum

​(i) Main thinking and largest part of the brain.
​(ii) It has 3 main areas-
​a) Sensory area- to receive impulses from sense organs via Receptors
​b ) Motor area- control voluntary movements.
​c) Association areas- Reasoning, learning & intelligence. Thalamus – It
relays sensory information to the Cerebrum

​Hypothallamus
​It forms the link between Nervous system & Endocrine system
​Mid brain:
​It connects Fore brain and Hind brain. Controls reflex of eyes & ears

​Hind brain:
​Connects the Fore brain & Hind brain

​Cerebellum Controls & coordinates muscular movements, maintaining body

posture and equilibrium.
​Pons- Acts as a bridge between brain & spinal cord
​Medulla oblongata Controls involuntary actions like blood pressure,
salivation, vomiting, etc.

​Spinal cord- Cylindrical or tubular structure extending downwards from the

Medulla oblongata.
​Protection of the brain & the spinal cord:
​(i) Bony outer covering: skull for the brain & vertebral column for the spinal
cord.
​(ii) Cerebrospinal fluid present in between the three membranes.

​Action caused by Nervous tissue:

​Information → Nervous tissue → Brain Muscles → Causes action

​Path or action:
​Nerve impulse → Muscle cell → Changes shape due to special proteins

​↓ Action caused ← Shorter form of muscles ← Change shape & arrangement

of cell

​Chemical communication by hormones- (advantages)

​(i) Electrical impulses have their limitations because they reach only those
cells connected to the nervous tissue.
​(ii) Also the nerve cells cannot generate & transmit impulses continuously.
​iii)Electrical communication is slower.

​Hormones:
​(i) are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands
​(ii) Are secreted in small amounts & may act in nearby places or distant
places.
​(iii) Do not take part in the reaction & are destroyed immediately.

​Hormones are secreted by- Endocrine glands & Exocrine glands

​Endocrine glands Exocrine glands
​Ducts absent Ducts present
​Ducts absent Ducts present
​Secrete hormones Secrete enzymes
​Secreted in blood Secreted in ducts of glands
​Situated away from the site of action Situated near the site of action
​Some glands which act as both endocrine & exocrine
​Gland Endocrine function Exocrine function
​Pancreas Produces insulin & Glucagon hormone. Produces digestive enzyme.
(pancreatic amylase)
​Testes Produces hormone Testosterone Produces male gametes (reproductive
cells)
​Ovaries Produces hormone Oestrogen Produces female gametes
(reproductive cells)
​Ovaries Produces hormone Oestrogen Produces female gametes
(reproductive cells)
​Important Endocrine glands
​Endocrine gland Hormone Function
​Pituitary gland Growth hormone Body growth, development of bones &
muscles (If excess- Gigantism) (If less- Dwarfism)
​Thyroid gland Thyroxine Regulates carbohydrate, protein & fat metabolism
​Pancreas Produces insulin & Glucagon hormone Regulates blood sugar levels
(if less diabetes is caused)
​Testes in males Produces hormone Testosterone Development of secondary
male characters like deep voice, beard, etc.
​Ovaries in females Produces hormone Oestrogen Development of secondary
female characters like mammary glands, menstrual cycle, maintenance of
pregnancy.
​Coordination in plants
​Only chemical coordination is present in plants.
​Tropic movements:
​The movements of plants in the direction of stimulus (positive) or away from
it (negative) are called tropic movements.
​E.g. Phototropism, Geotropism. Chemotropism.

​Nastic movements:
​The movements of plants independent of stimuli are called nastic movements.
​E.g.- Touch me not plant leaves close when touched.

​Plant hormones (Phytohormones) Examples

​1. Auxins- Help in growth of root & shoot tips.
​2. Gibberellins- Help in vegetative growth
​3. Cytokinins- Promote cell division
​4. Abscissic acid - Inhibits growth & causes wilting (falling) of leaves

Topic:65
​REPRODUCTION
​INTRODUCTION
We know that the chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information
for inheritance of features from parents to next generation
​in the form of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules.

​The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins.
​If the information is changed, different proteins will be made.
​Different proteins will eventually lead to altered body designs.

​Therefore, a basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy.

​Cells use chemical reactions to build copies of their DNA.
​This creates two copies of the DNA in a reproducing cell and they will need
to be separated from each other.
​DNA copying is achieved by the creation of an additional cellular apparatus
and then the DNA copies separate, each with its own cellular apparatus.

​Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two cells.

​No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable and hence it is only to be
expected that the process of copying the DNA will have some variations each
time.
​As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar but may not be
identical to the original.
​Hence we can say that the surviving cells are similar but subtly different from
each other.
​This inbuilt tendency for variation during reproduction is the basis for
evolution.

​The Importance of Variation

​The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is important for the
maintenance of body design features that allow the organism
​to use that particular niche.
​Reproduction is therefore linked to the stability of populations of species.
​Temperatures on earth can go up or down, water levels can vary .
​If a population of reproducing organisms were suited to a particular niche and
if the niche were drastically altered, the population could be wiped out.

​However, if some variations were to be present in a few individuals in these

populations, there would be some chance for them to survive.
​So, if there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters and if the
water temperature were to be increased by global warming,
​most of these bacteria would die, but the few variants resistant to heat would
survive and grow further.
​Hence we can make a conclusion that the Variations useful for the survival of
species over time.

​MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS

​Fission
​For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of
new individuals.
​Many different patterns of fission have been observed by the scientists over
the period of time.
​Many bacteria and protozoa split into two equal halves during cell division.

​In organisms like Amoeba there is the splitting of the two cells during
division in any plane.
​However, some unicellular organisms show more organisation of their bodies
like in Leishmania that causes cause kala-azar and have a whip-like
​structure at one end of the cell.

​In such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to

these structures.
​On the other hand the single-celled organisms like the malarial parasite,
Plasmodium divide into many daughter cells simultaneously by multiple
fission.
​Whereas, Yeast can put out small buds that separate and grow further.

​Fragmentation
​In multi-cellular organisms with simple body organisation, simple
reproductive methods works.
​Like, Spirogyra which breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation.
​These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals.
​Whereas, this is not true for all multi-cellular organisms.
​They cannot simply divide cell-by-cell.
​The main reason is that many multi-cellular organisms are not a random
collection of cells.
​Specialized cells are organized as tissues and tissues are organized into
organs which then have to be placed at definite positions in the body.

​In such a organized situation cell-by-cell division will be impractical.

​Multi-cellular organisms hence need to use more complex ways of
reproduction.
​A basic process behind the multi-cellular organisms is that different cell types
perform different specialized functions.
​Following this general pattern, reproduction in such organisms is also the
function of a specific cell type.

​Regeneration
​If the individual is cut or broken up into many pieces than many of these
pieces grow into separate individuals.
​For example, animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of
pieces and each piece grows into a complete organism.
​This is known as regeneration .

​Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells and such cells proliferate and
make large numbers of cells.
​From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become various
cell types and tissues.
​These changes take place in an organized sequence known as development.
​But regeneration is not the same as reproduction as most organisms doesn't
depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.

​Budding
​Organisms like Hydra uses regenerative cells for reproduction in the process
of budding.
​In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one
specific site.
​These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from
the parent body and become new independent individuals.

​Vegetative Propagation
​There are many plants in which parts like the root, stem and leaves develop
into new plants under appropriate conditions.
​This property of vegetative propagation is used in methods such as layering
or grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes for
agricultural purposes.
​Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier
than those produced from seeds.
​Such methods make possible the propagation of plants such as banana,
orange, rose and jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
​All plants produced are genetically similar enough to the parent plant to have
all its characteristics which is one of the main advantage
​of vegetative propagation..

​SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
​In sexual reproduction, a male gamete (germ cells) fuses with a female
gamete to form a new cell called ‘zygote’.
​This zygote then grows and develop into a new organism in due course of
time.

​When male gamete and female gamete fuse, they form a zygote and the
process is known as fertilization.
​Types of Fertilization
​a. External fertilization and
​b. Internal fertilization

​Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

​Flower is meant essentially for sexual reproduction.
​Pollination is the process in which pollen grains are transferred from the
anther to stigma of the carpel.
​It is of two types:
​a. self pollination and
​b. cross-pollination.

​In the fertilization process primary endospermic nucleus is formed.

​After the fertilization process, ovary developes into the fruit whereas ovules
into the seed.

​Reproduction in Human Beings

​The sex organ in males are testes and ova in females.
​Male reproductive organ consist of a pair of testes, vasdeferens, a pair of
epididymis, a pair of ejaculatory duct, urethra, pairs of accessory gland.
​Female reproductive part consist of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tube,
uterus, vagina, external genitalia, mammary glands and accessory glands.

​Ovary produces the female gametes (eggs or ova) and female sex hormone
(estrogen).
​If sperms are present, fertilization of ovum takes place in the upper end of the
fallopian tube.
​Bleeding accompanied by discharge of soft tissue lining the reproductive
tract is menstrual flow which last for 3-5 days.
​Secretory phase lasts for 12-14 days.

​Fertilization process occurs in fallopian tube.

​In this process zygote is formed.
​In this process umbilical cord is produced which is attached to foetus.
​During this process two hormones are produced which are estrogen and
progesterone.
​Progesterone stops mensturation and prevents ovulation.
​The placenta protects the body against diseases.
​Due to contraction of uterine muscles young one is expelled and the
phenomenon is called parturition.
​If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day.
​Since the ovary releases one egg every month, the uterus also prepares it self
every month to recieve a fertilized egg.
​After the age of 45-50 years menses stop and process is called menopause.
​Fertility control can be done chemically, mechanically or surgically.

​Reproductive Health Barrier methods

​(i) Mechanical barrier method:
​They prevent contraception by preventing either sperms from entering uterus
or preventing implantation if fertilization has occurred.
​The instruments are condom, cercival cap, diaphragm & ICDU method.

​(ii) Hormonal method:

​They are used by women for suppressing the production of ovum. i.e. , oral
pills, Implants morning after pills.

​(iii) Chemical contraception:

​They are creams, jellies and foaming tables which are placed in vagina for
killing the sperms at the time of coitus.

​(iv) Surgical techniques:

​(a) Vasectomy:
​The two vasa deferential of the male are blocked by cutting a small piece of
tying the rest.
​This prevents the passage of sperms from testes to semen.

​(b) Tubectomy:
​A portion of both the fallopian tubes is excised to ligated to block the passage
of ovum.
​Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
​It is a group of infections caused by different types of pathogens that are
transmitted by sexual contact between a
​healthy person and an infected person.
​The sexually transmitted diseases are also called venereal diseases (VDs).
​Almost 30 different types of STDs are known.
​For example : Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Trichomonas, Genital warts, AIDS etc. .

​Main Points to Remember

​1. Reproduction, unlike other life processes, is not essential to maintain the
life of an individual organism.
​2. Reproduction involves creation of a DNA copy and additional cellular
apparatus by the cell involved in the process.

​3. Various organisms use different modes of reproduction depending on their

body design.
​4. In fission, many bacteria and protozoa simply divide into two or more
daughter cells.

​5. Organisms such as hydra can regenerate if they are broken into pieces.
​They can also give out buds which mature into new individuals.
​6. Roots, stems and leaves of some plants develop into new plants through
vegetative propagation.
​7. These are examples of asexual reproduction where new generations are
created from a single individual.

​8. Sexual reproduction involves two individuals for the creation of a new
individual.
​9. DNA copying mechanisms creates variations which are useful for ensuring
the survival of the species.
​Modes of sexual reproduction allow for greater variation to be generated.

​10. Reproduction in flowering plants involves transfer of pollen grains from

the anther to the stigma which is referred to as pollination.
​This is followed by fertilisation.
​11. Changes in the body at puberty, such as increase in breast size in girls and
new facial hair growth in boys, are signs of sexual maturation.

​12. The male reproductive system in human beings consists of testes which
produce sperms, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra and
penis.
​13. The female reproductive system in human beings consists of ovaries,
fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina.
​14. Sexual reproduction in human beings involves the introduction of sperm
in the vagina of the female. Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube.
​15. Contraception to avoid pregnancy can be achieved by the use of
condoms, oral pills, copper-T and other methods.

Topic:66
​Heredity and Evolution
ACCUMULATION OF VARIATION DURING REPRODUCTION
​Inheritance from the previous generation provides both a common basic body
design, and subtle changes in it,for the next generation.
​The second generation will have differences that they inherit from the first
generation, as well as newly created differences.
​If one bacterium divides, and then the resultant two bacteria divide again, the
four individual bacteria generated would be very similar.
​There would be only very minor differences between them, generated due to
small inaccuracies in DNA copying.

​But,if sexual reproduction is involved, the greater diversity will be generated.

​Depending on the nature of variations, different individuals will have
different kinds of advantages.
​Bacteria that can withstand heat will survive better in a heat wave.

​HEREDITY
​The most outcome of the reproductive process still remains the generation of
individuals of similar design.
​The rules of heredity determine the process by which traits and characteristics
are reliably inherited.

​Rules for the Inheritance of Traits – Mendel’s Contributions

​The rules for inheritance in human beings are related to the fact that both the
father and the mother contribute practically equal
​amounts of genetic material to the child.
​That is each trait can be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA.
​Thus, for each trait here will be two versions in each child.
​Mendel worked out the main rules of such inheritance.

​Mendel used a number of visible characters of garden peas – round/wrinkled

seeds, tall/short plants, white/violet flowers and so on.
​He took pea plants with different characteristics – a tall plant and a short
plant, produced progeny by crossing them, and calculated the
​percentages of tall or short progeny.

​In the first place, there were no halfway characteristics in this firstgeneration,
or F1 progeny: no ‘medium-height’ plants.
​All plants were tall.
​That is only one of the parental traits was seen, not some mixture of the two.

​Mendelian experiments test this by getting both the parental plants and these
F1 tall plants to reproduce by self-pollination.
​The progeny of the parental plants are, of course, all tall.
​But the second-generation, or F2, progeny of the F1 tall plants are not all tall.
​Instead, one quarter of them are short.

​This indicates that both the tallness and shortness traits were inherited in the
F1 plants but only the tallness trait was expressed.
​And this led Mendel to propose that two copies of factor (now called genes)
controlling traits are present in sexually reproducing organism.
​These two may be identical, or may be different, depending on the
parentage.

​A pattern of inheritance can be worked out with this assumption:

​In this explanation, both TT and Tt are tall plants, while only tt is a short
plant.
​That is a single copy of ‘T’ is enough to make the plant tall, while both
copies have to be ‘t’ for the plant to be short.
​Traits like ‘T’ are called dominant traits, while those that behave like ‘t’ are
called recessive traits.
​A Mendelian experiment will find that some F2 progeny are tall plants with
round seeds, and some were short plants with wrinkled seeds.
​However, there would also be some F2 progeny that showed new
combinations.
​Some of them would be tall but have wrinkled seeds while others would be
short but have round seeds.

​The way the Traits get Expressed

​Cellular DNA is the information source for making proteins in the cell.
​A section of DNA that provides information for one protein is called the gene
for that protein.
​Example of tallness of a characteristic
​We know that plants have hormones that can trigger growth.
​Plant height hence depends on the amount of a particular plant hormone.

​The amount of the plant hormone made will depend on the efficiency of the
process for making it.
​If the enzyme works efficiently, a lot of hormone will be made and the plant
will be tall.
​If the gene for that enzyme has an alteration that makes the enzyme less
efficient, the amount of hormone will be less and the plant will be short.
​Hence we can say that genes control characteristics or traits.
​If the interpretations of Mendelian experiments are correct, then both parents
must be contributing equally to the DNA of the progeny during sexual
reproduction.
​If both parents can help determine the trait in the progeny, both parents must
be contributing a copy of the same gene.
​This means that each pea plant must have two sets of all genes, one inherited
from each parent.

​For the working of this process, each germ cell must have only one gene set.
​If progeny plants inherited a single whole gene set from each parent, then the
experiment explained above won't work
​because the two characteristics ‘R’ and ‘y’ would be linked to each other and
cannot be independently inherited.

​This is due to the fact that each gene set is present, not as a single long thread
of DNA, but as separate independent pieces, each called a chromosome.
​Hence, each cell will have two copies of each chromosome, one each from
the male and female parents.
​Every germ cell will take one chromosome from each pair and are of either
maternal or paternal origin.
​When two germ cells combine, they will restore the normal number of
chromosomes in the progen making sure that the stability of the DNA of the
species.
​Such a mechanism of inheritance explains the results of the Mendel
experiments and is used by all sexually reproducing organisms.
​Also asexually reproducing organisms follow similar rules of inheritance.

​Sex Determination
​In some animals like a few reptiles, the temperature at which fertilised eggs
are kept determines whether the animals developing in the eggs
​will be male or female.
​In other animals like snails, individuals can change sex indicating that sex is
not genetically determined.
​However, in human beings, the sex of the individual is largely genetically
determined.
​In other words, the genes inherited from our parents decide whether we will
be boys or girls.

​All human chromosomes are not paired.

​Most human chromosomes have a maternal and a paternal copy, and have 22
such pairs.
​But one pair known as the sex chromosomes, is odd in not always being a
perfect pair.
​Women have a perfect pair of sex chromosomes, both called X.
​Whereas man have a mismatched pair in which one is a normal-sized X while
the other is a short one called Y.

​So women are XX, while men are XY.

​All children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother regardless of
whether they are boys or girls.
​Hence, the sex of the children will be determined by what they inherit from
their father.

​A child who inherits an X chromosome from her father will be a girl, and one
who inherits a Y chromosome from him will be a boy.
​So point to understand here is that in our society usually women are blamed
for not having a boy; but as per scientific rule; the role of
​a boy or girl is completly dependent upon the man rather woman.

​EVOLUTION
​It is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive
organisms over millions of years in which new species are produced.
​The evidences of evolution are:
​i. Homologous organs, ii. Analogous organs, and iii. Fossils

​Theories of Evolution:
​Jean Baptiste Lamarck gave the first theory of evolution.
​Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
​Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) explained the evolutionary principle in
his famous book “The origin of species”.
​The theory proposed by him is popularly known as theory of natural selection
or Darwinsim.

​The main features of the theory of natural selection are as follows:

​(i) Over production
​(ii) Limited food and space
​(iii) Struggle for Existence
​(iv) Variations
​(v) Natural Selection or Survival of the Fittest

​SPECIATION
​The process by which new species develop from the existing species is
known as speciation.
​The factors which leads to speciation are:
​Geographical isolation
​Genetic drift and
​Variations
​EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION
​Some basic characteristics will be shared by most organisms.
​The cell is the basic unit of life in all organisms.

​The characteristics in the next level of classification would be shared by

most, but not all organisms.
​A basic characteristic of cell design that differs among different organisms is
whether the cell has a nucleus.
​Among multi-cellular organisms, whether they can undertake photosynthesis
or not will provide the next level of classification.
​Among the multi-cellular organisms that cannot do photosynthesis, whether
the skeleton is inside the body or around the
​body will mark another fundamental design difference.

​The more characteristics two species will have in common, the more closely
they are related.
​And the more closely they are related, the more recently they will have had a
common ancestor.

​Let's see an example

​A brother and a sister are closely related.
​They have common ancestors in the first generation before them, namely,
their parents.
​A girl and her first cousin are also related but less than the girl and her
brother.
​This is because cousins have common ancestors, their grandparents in the
second generation before them, not in the first one.

​Hence the classification of species is in fact a reflection of their evolutionary

relationship.
​Hence we can build up small groups of species with recent common
ancestors,
​then super-groups of these groups with more distant common ancestors, and
so on.

​Tracing Evolutionary Relationships

​These characteristics in different organisms would be similar because they
are inherited from a common ancestor.
​As an example, consider the fact that mammals have four limbs, as do birds,
reptiles and amphibians.
​The basic structure of the limbs is similar though it has been modified to
perform different functions in various vertebrates.

​Such a homologous characteristic helps to identify an evolutionary

relationship between apparently different species.
​However, all similarities simply in organ shape are not necessarily because of
common ancestry.
​For example, Birds and bats have wings, but squirrels and lizards do not.
​The designs of the two wings, their structure and components are thus very
different.
​They look similar because they have a common use for flying, but their
origins are not common.
​This makes them analogous characteristics, rather than homologous
characteristics.

​Fossils
​The remains of dead plants or animals that lived in the remote past are known
as fossils.
​Various kinds of fossils:
​Ammonite, Trilobite and Dinosaur.

​Evolution by Stages
​Evolution of complex organs have taken place bit-by-bit over generations.
​For example eye, feathers of birds have evolved because of survival
advantage of intermediate stages.
​Thus changes in DNA during reproduction are the main cause of evolution.

​EVOLUTION SHOULD NOT BE EQUATED WITH ‘PROGRESS’

​Evolution is simply the generation of diversity and the shaping of the
diversity by environmental selection.
​The only progressive trend in evolution seems to be that more and more
complex body designs have emerged over time.

​Human Evolution
​All have beings belong to single species Homo sapiens, although there were
many races of humans.
​They have originated in Africa, some ancestors left Africa and migrated to
West Asia, Central Asia, Eurasia South Asia, East Asia, Indonesia, Australia,
America, while others stayed there.

​Excavating, time-dating, studying fossils, determining DNA Sequences have

been used for studying human evolution.

​Main Points to Remember

​1. Variations arising during the process of reproduction can be inherited.
​2. These variations may lead to increased survival of the individuals.

​3. Sexually reproducing individuals have two copies of genes for the same
trait.
​If the copies are not identical, the trait that gets expressed is called the
dominant trait and the other is called the recessive trait.

​4. Traits in one individual may be inherited separately, giving rise to new
combinations of traits in the offspring of sexual reproduction.
​5. Sex is determined by different factors in various species.
​In human beings, the sex of the child depends on whether the paternal
chromosome is X (for girls) or Y (for boys).

​6. Variations in the species may confer survival advantages or merely

contribute to the genetic drift.
​7. Changes in the non-reproductive tissues caused by environmental factors
are not inheritable.

​8. Speciation may take place when variation is combined with geographical
isolation.
​9. Evolutionary relationships are traced in the classification of organisms.

​10. Tracing common ancestors back in time leads us to the idea that at some
point of time, non-living material must have given rise to life.
​11. Evolution can be worked out by the study of not just living species, but
also fossils.

​12. Complex organs may have evolved because of the survival advantage of
even the intermediate stages.
​13. Organs or features may be adapted to new functions during the course of
evolution.
​For example, feathers are thought to have been initially evolved for warmth
and later adapted for flight.

​14. Evolution cannot be said to ‘progress’ from ‘lower’ forms to ‘higher’

forms.
​Rather, evolution seems to have given rise to more complex body designs
even while the simpler body designs continue to flourish.

​15. Study of the evolution of human beings indicates that all of us belong to a
single species that evolved in Africa and spread across the world in stages.

Topic:67
​Light – Reflection and Refraction
Ray of Light
​A line drawn in the direction of propagation of light is called a ray of light.

Beam of Light
​A group of rays of light emitted by a source of light is called a beam of light.
​A light beam is of three types:

​(i) Parallel beam :

​A group of light rays parallel to each other is known as parallel beam of
light.
​(ii) Divergent beam :
​A group of light rays spreading out from a source of light is called divergent
beam of light.

​(iii) Convergent beam :

​A group of light rays meeting at a point is called convergent beam of light.

​Reflection of Light
​There are some surfaces which have ability to send the light back in the same
medium when light strikes it.
​This phenomena of sending the light back in the same medium by a surface is
called reflection of light.

​(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence,
all lie in a same plane.
​(ii) The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection i.e.

Image
​When light rays meet or appear to meet after reflection from a mirror, then it
is called an image.
​Real Image :
​It is a kind of image which is formed by actual intersection of light rays after
reflection.

​Virtual Image :
​It is a kind of image which is formed by producing the reflected rays
backward after reflection.

​Mirror
​Plane mirror:
​It is a piece of glass whose one side is polished by using silver paint, which is
covered by a coating of red paint to protect the silver layer.

​Spherical Mirrors :
​It is part of hollow glass sphere whose one surface is polished.
​There are two types of spherical mirror.

​(i) Concave Mirror :

​It is a spherical mirror whose outer surface is polished and inner or concave
side is reflecting surface.

​(ii) Convex Mirror :

​It is a spherical mirror whose inner is polished and outer side or convex side
is the reflecting surface.

​Principal Focus
​A point on the principal axis of a spherical mirror where the rays of light
parallel to the principal axis meet or appear to meet after reflection from the
mirror.

​Focal Length
​The distance between the pole (P) and principal focus(F) of a spherical mirror
is called the focal length of the mirror.
​It is denoted by f.

​Uses of Concave Mirror

​(i) It is used as a shaving mirror because when it is placed close to the face, it
forms a large image.
​(ii) It is used in solar heating devices like solar cooker, because it converges
Sun’s rays over a small area to produce high temperature.
​(iii) It is used for security checking purposes.
​Uses of Convex Mirror
​(i) It is used as rear view mirror in automobiles because it gives erect image
as well as diminished due to which Pt has wider field of view.
​(ii) It is also used in street lights.

​Mirror Formula
​It is a relation between distance of object, distance of image from the pole of
the mirror and it’s focal length,
​i.e., relation between ‘u’, ‘v and It is given by:
​1/f = 1/u + 1/v

​Magnification
​It is defined as the ratio of height of image to the height of the object.
​It is denoted by letter m.
​m = height of image(I) / height of object(O)

​Refraction of Light
​The bending of ray of light when it passes from one medium to another is
called refraction of light.
​Laws of Refraction :
​(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence
all lie in the same plane.
​(ii) When a ray of light undergoes refraction then the ratio of sine of angle of
incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant.

​The Refractive Index

​The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium is given by the
ratio of the speed of light in medium 1 and the speed of light in medium 2.
​This is usually represented by the symbol n21.

​This can be expressed in an equation form as:

​n21 = speed of light in medium 1 / speed of light in medium 2 = v1/v2
​Refraction by spherical lenses
l​ens is a transparent medium which is formed by joining two pieces of
spherical glass.
​There are two types of lenses.

​(i) Convex Lens :

​It is a lens which is thicker at the centre and thinner at the edges.

​(ii) Concave Lens :

​It is a lens which is thinner at the centre and thicker at the edges.

​Terms related to a lens

​Optical Centre of Lens :
​It is the centre of the lens through which light can pass without any deviation.

​Principal Axis :
​It is the line passing through optical centre and is perpendicular to the line
joining its edges.

​Principal Focus :
​It is a point on the principal axis where all light rays which are parallel to
principal axis either converge or appear to diverge from, after refraction.

​Lens formula:
​1/f = 1/u + 1/v

​Magnification:
​Magnification, m = h2 /h1

​Ratio of height of image to the height of object.

​It is also given by v/u i.e., Ratio of distance of image to the distance of
object.
​i.e. h2 / h1 = v/u

​Power of a lens
​A beam of light parallel to principal axis either gets converged or diverged
after refraction by a lens.
​Some lenses converge the beam of light to a small extent and some lenses
converge it to a large extent.
​This ability of lens to converge or diverge a beam of light is known as the
power of lens.

​Si unit of power of lens is dioptre :

​One dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 m.

​Power of a combination of two or more lenses :

​If two or more lenses are placed together to form a combined lens then the
power of this combined lens is equal to the sum of the powers of individual
lenses.
​P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ……

Topic:
​The Human Eye and the Colourful World
THE HUMAN EYE
​Among all the sense organs, the human eye is the most significant one as it
enables us to see the beautiful colourful world around us.
​The human eye is like a camera.
​Its lens system forms an image on a light-sensitive screen called the retina.

​Light enters the eye through a thin membrane called the cornea.
​It forms the transparent bulge on the front surface of the eyeball.

​The eyeball is spherical in shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm.

​Most of the refraction for the light rays entering the eye occurs at the outer
surface of the cornea.
​The crystalline lens merely provides the finer adjustment of focal length
required to focus objects at different distances on the retina.
​There is a structure called iris behind the cornea.

​Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the pupil.
​The pupil regulates and controls the amount of light entering the eye.
​The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the object on the retina.
​The retina is a delicate membrane having enormous number of light-sensitive
cells.

​The light-sensitive cells get activated upon illumination and generate

electrical signals.
​These signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerves.
​The brain interprets these signals and finally, processes the information so
that we perceive objects as they are.

​Power of Accommodation
​The change in the curvature of the eye lens can thus change its focal length.
​When the muscles are relaxed, the lens becomes thin.
​Hence , its focal length increases which enables see distant objects clearly.

​When we are looking at objects closer to the eye, the ciliary muscles
contract.
​This increases the curvature of the eye lens. The eye lens then becomes
thicker.
​And then , the focal length of the eye lens decreases which enables us to see
nearby objects clearly.

​The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation.
​But the point to note here is that the the focal length of the eye lens cannot be
decreased below a certain minimum limit.
​The minimum distance at which objects can be seen most distinctly without
strain is called the least distance of distinct vision.
​It is also called the near point of the eye.

​For a young adult with normal vision, the near point is about 25 cm.
​The farthest point upto which the eye can see objects clearly is called the far
point of the eye.
​It is infinity for a normal eye.

​A normal eye can see objects clearly that are between 25 cm and infinity.
​Sometimes, the crystalline lens of people at old age becomes milky and
cloudy and such condition is called cataract.
​This causes partial or complete loss of vision.

​DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION

​The eye may gradually lose its power of accommodation.
​In such conditions, the person cannot see the objects distinctly and
comfortably.
​The vision becomes blurred due to the refractive defects of the eye.

​There are mainly three common refractive defects of vision:

​(i) myopia or near-sightedness,
​(ii) Hypermetropia or farsightedness and
​(iii) Presbyopia.

​These defects can be corrected by the use of suitable spherical lenses.

​Different defects and the methods of their correction:
​(a) Myopia:
​A person with myopia also knwon as near-sightedness can see nearby objects
clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly.
​A person with this defect has the far point nearer than infinity.
​Such a person may see clearly upto a distance of a few metres.
​In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina,
not at the retina itself.
​This defect may arise due to:
​(i) excessive curvature of the eye lens,
​(ii) elongation of the eyeball.

​Such defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power.

​Note: A concave lens of suitable power will bring the image back on to the
retina and thus the defect is corrected.

​Hypermetropia
​A person with hypermetropia also known as far-sightedness can see distant
objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects distinctly.
​The near point for the person, is farther away from the normal near point (25
cm).
​The person with such defect has to keep a reading material much beyond 25
cm from the eye for comfortable reading.
​This is because the light rays from a close by object are focussed at a point
behind the retina as shown.

​This defect arises either because:

​(i) the focal length of the eye lens is too long or
​(ii) the eyeball has become too small.

​This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate power.

​Eye-glasses with converging lenses provide the additional focussing power
required for forming the image on the retina.

​Presbyopia
​The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing.
​For most people, the near point gradually recedes away.
​The people with such defects find it difficult to see nearby objects
comfortably and distinctly without corrective eye-glasses.
​This defect is called Presbyopia.

​It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing
flexibility of the eye lens.
​Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia.
​and often require bi-focal lenses.

​A common type of bi-focal lenses consists of both concave and convex

lenses.
​The upper portion consists of a concave lens which facilitates distant vision.

​The lower part is a convex lens which facilitates near vision.

​Also in today's time it is possible to correct the refractive defects with contact
lenses or through surgical interventions.

​REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM

​A triangular glass prism has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral
surfaces.
​These surfaces are inclined to each other.
​The angle between its two lateral faces is called the angle of the prism.

​Here PE is the incident ray, EF is the refracted ray and FS is the emergent
ray.
​A ray of light is entering from air to glass at the first surface AB.

​The light ray on refraction has bent towards the normal.

​At the second surface AC, the light ray has entered from glass to air.
​Hence it has bent away from normal.
​The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to
the direction of the incident ray.
​This angle is called the angle of deviation.

​DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM

​The prism splits the incident white light into a band of colours.
​The various colours seen at the other end are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green,
Yellow, Orange and Red,.

​Remember the shape of the color through the acronym VIBGYOR.

​VIBGYOR: Voilet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red

​The band of the coloured components of a light beam is called its spectrum.
​The splitting of light into its component colours is called dispersion.
​Different colours of light bend through different angles with respect to the
incident ray,as they pass through a prism.
​The red light bends the least while the violet the most.

​Any light that gives a spectrum similar to that of sunlight is often referred to
as white light.
​A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower.
​It is caused by dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the
atmosphere.

​A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun.

​The water droplets act like small prisms.
​They refract and disperse the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and
finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop .
​Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours reach
the observer’s eye.

​ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
​Twinkling of stars:
​The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight.
​On entering the earth’s atmosphere the starlight undergoes refraction
continuously before it reaches the earth.

​The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of gradually changing

refractive index.
​Since the atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal, the apparent
position of the star is slightly different from its actual position.
​The star appears slightly higher (above) than its actual position when viewed
near the horizon .

​Further, this apparent position of the star is not stationary, but keeps on
changing slightly, since the physical conditions of the earth’s
​atmosphere are not stationary.

​Since the stars are very distant, they approximate point-sized sources of
light.
​As the path of rays of light coming from the star goes on varying slightly, the
apparent position of the star fluctuates and the amount of starlight
​entering the eye flickers: the star sometimes appears brighter and at some
other time, fainter which is the twinkling effect.
​The planets are much closer to the earth, and are thus seen as extended
sources.

​Advance sunrise and delayed sunset:

​The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise and about 2
minutes after the actual sunset because of atmospheric refraction.
​Actual sunrise means the actual crossing of the horizon by the Sun.
​The time difference between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2
minutes.
​The apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to
the same phenomenon.
​Tyndall Effect
​The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles.
​These particles include smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of
dust and molecules of air.
​When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the beam
becomes visible.
​The light reaches us after being reflected diffusely by these particles.

​The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to

Tyndall effect.
​This phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-filled
room through a small hole.
​Thus, scattering of light makes the particles visible.
​Tyndall effect can also be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of
a dense forest.

​Here, tiny water droplets in the mist scatter light.

​The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering
particles.
​Very fine particles scatter mainly blue light while particles of larger size
scatter light of longer wavelengths.
​If the size of the scattering particles is large enough, then, the scattered light
may even appear white.

​The reason behind the colour of the clear Sky as Blue

​The molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size
smaller than the wavelength of visible light.
​These are more effective in scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue
end than light of longer wavelengths at the red end.
​The red light has a wavelength about 1.8 times greater than blue light.
​Thus, when sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air
scatter the blue colour (shorter wavelengths) more strongly than red.
​The scattered blue light enters our eyes.
​If the earth had no atmosphere, there would not have been any scattering.
​Then, the sky would have looked dark.

​Main Points
​1.The ability of the eye to focus on both near and distant objects, by adjusting
its focal length, is called the accommodation of the eye.
​2. The smallest distance, at which the eye can see objects clearly without
strain, is called the near point of the eye or the least distance of distinct
vision.
​For a young adult with normal vision, it is about 25 cm.

​3. The common refractive defects of vision include myopia, hypermetropia

and presbyopia. Myopia (short-sightedness – the image of distant objects is
focussed before the retina) is corrected by using a concave lens of suitable
power.
​Hypermetropia (far-sightedness – the image of nearby objects is focussed
beyond the retina) is corrected by using a convex lens of suitable power.
​The eye loses its power of accommodation at old age.

​4. The splitting of white light into its component colours is called dispersion.
​5. Scattering of light causes the blue colour of sky and the reddening of the
Sun at sunrise and sunset.
10-12
​Electricity
​Charge
​Positive and negative charges:
​The charge acquired by a glass rod when rubbed with silk is called positive
charge and the charge acquired by an ebonite rod when rubbed with wool is
called negative charge.
​Coulomb:
​It is the S.I. unit of charge.
​One coulomb is defined as that amount of charge which repels an equal and
similar charge with a force of 9 x 109 N when placed in vacuum at a distance
of 1 meter from it.
​Charge on an electron = -1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.

​Static and current electricities:

​Static electricity deals with the electric charges at rest while the current
electricity deals with the electric charges in motion.

​Conductor and Insulator

​Conductor:
​A substance which allows passage of electric charges through it easily is
called a conductor.
​A conductor offers very low resistance to the flow of current. For example
copper, silver, aluminium etc.

​Insulator:
​A substance that has infinitely high resistance does not allow electric current
to flow through it.
​It is called an insulator.
​For example rubber, glass, plastic, ebonite etc.

​Electric current:
​The flow of electric charges across a cross-section of a conductor constitutes
an electric current.
​It is defined as the rate of flow of the electric charge through any section of a
conductor.
​Electric currentharge/Time or :
​I = Q/t Electric current is a scalar quantity.
Ampere:
​It is the S.I. unit of current.
​If one coulomb of charge flows through any section of a conductor in one
second, then current through it is said to be one ampere.

​1 ampere = 1 coulomb/1 second or

​1 A = 1C/1s = 1Cs-1
​1 milliampere = 1 mA = 10-3A
​1 microampere = 1µA = 10-6A

​Electric circuit and its components

​The closed path along which electric current flows is called an ‗electric
circuit.

​Conventional current:
​Conventionally, the direction of motion of positive charges is taken as the
direction of current.
​The direction of conventional current is opposite to that of the negatively
charged electrons.

​Electric field:
​It is the region around a charged body within which its influence can be
experienced.

​Electrostatic potential:
​Electrostatic potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the amount
of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
​Its unit is volt.
​Positive charges move from higher to lower potential regions.
​Electrons, being negatively charged, move from lower to higher potential
regions.
​Potential difference between two points:
​The Potential difference between two points in an electric field is the amount
of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one to another.
​Potential difference = Work done/Charge or
​V = W/Q

​One volt potential difference:

​The Potential difference between two points in an electric field is said to one
volt if one joule of work has to be done in bringing a positive charge of one
coulomb from one
​point to another.

​1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb or 1 V = 1J/1C

​Measuring Device
​Galvanometer:
​It is device to detect current in an electric circuit.

​Ammeter:
​It is device to measure current in a circuit. It is always connected in series in
a circuit.

​Voltmeter:
​It is a device to measure potential difference.
​It is always connected in parallel to the component across which the potential
difference is to be measured.

​Ohm’s law
​This law states that the current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference cross its ends, provided the physical
conditions
​like temperature, density etc. remains unchanged.
​V α I or V = RI

​Resistance:
​It is a property of a conductor by virtue of which it opposes the flow of
current through it.
​It is equal to the ratio of the potential difference applied across its ends and
the current flowing through it.
​Resistance = Potential difference/Current or R = V/I

​Ohm:
​It is the S.I. unit of resistance.
​A conductor has a resistance of one ohm if a current of one ampere flows
through it on applying a potential difference of one volt across its ends.
​1 ohm = 1 volt/1 ampere or 1Ω = 1V/1A

​Factors on which resistance of a conductor depends

​The resistance R of a conductor depends
​i) Directly on its length L i.e. R α L.
​ii) inversely on its area of cross-section A i.e. R α 1/A
​iii) on the nature of material of the conductor on.

​On combining, we get

​R α L/A
​R = ρ ×L/A

​The proportionality constant ρ is called resistivity of conductor.

​Resistivity:
​It is defined as the resistance offered by a cube of a material of side 1 m when
current flows perpendicular to its opposite faces.
​Its S.I. unit is ohm-meter (Ωm).
​Resistivity, ρ = RA/L

​Equivalent resistance:
​If a single resistance can replace the combination of resistances in such a
manner that the current in the circuit remains unchanged, then that single
resistance is called the equivalent resistance.
​Laws of resistances in series:
​i) Current through each resistance is same.
​ii) Total voltage across the combination = Sum of the voltage drops.
​V= V1 + V2 + V3

​iii) Voltage drops across any resistor is proportional to its resistance.

​V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V2 = IR3

​iv) Equivalent resistance = Sum of the individual resistances.

​Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

​v) Equivalent resistance is larger than the largest individual resistance.

​Laws of resistances in parallel:

​i) Voltage across each resistance is same and is equal to the applied voltage.
​ii) Total current = Sum of the currents through the individual resistances.
​I = I1 + I2 + I3

​iii) Currents through various resistances are inversely proportional to the

individual resistances.
​I1 = V/R11, I2 = V/R2, I3 = V/R3

​iv) Reciprocal of equivalent resistance = Sum of reciprocals of individual

resistances.
​1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

​v) Equivalent resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance.

​Joule’s law of heating:

​It states that the heat produced in a conductor is directly proportional to:
​(i) the square of the current I through it
​(ii) proportional to its resistances R and
​(iii) the time t for which current is passed.

​Mathematically, it can be expressed as

​H = I2Rt
​joule = I2Rt/4.18 cal or
​H = VIt
​joule = VIt/4.18cal

​Electric energy & Electrical Power

​It is the total work done in maintaining an electric current in an electric
circuit for given time.
​Electric energy, W = VIt = I2Rt joule

​Electrical power:
​Electrical power is the rate at which electric energy is consumed by an
appliance.
​P = W/t = VI = I2R = V2/R

​Watt:
​It is the S.I. unit of power.
​The power of an appliance is 1 watt if one ampere of current flows through it
on applying a potential differences of 1 volt across its ends.
​1 watt = 1 joule/1 second =1 volt x 1 ampere or 1 W = 1 Js -1 = 1 VA 1
kilowatt = 1000 W
​Kilowatt hour:
​It is the commercial unit of electrical energy. One kilowatt hour is the electric
energy consumed by an appliance of 1000 watts when used for one hour.
​1 kilowatt hour (kWh) = 3.6 x 106 J

Topic:68
​Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
​Magnet: Magnet is an object that attracts objects made of iron, cobalt &
nickel.
​Maget comes to rest in North-South direction, when suspended freely.

​Magnets are used:

​(i) In radio & stereo speakers,
​(ii) In refrigerator doors,
​(iii) on audio & video cassettes players,
​(iv) On hard discs & floppies of computers
​(v) in children‘s toys.

​Magnetic field:
​The area around a magnet where a magnetic force is experienced is called a
magnetic field.
​It has both direction & magnitude.

​Magnetic field lines:

​Magnetic field is represented by field lines.
​They are lines drawn in a Magnetic field along which a North magnetic pole
moves.
​Magnetic field lines are called as Magnetic lines of force.
​Properties of Magnetic field lines:
​(i) They do not intersect each other.
​(ii) It is taken by convention that magnetic field lines emerge from North pole
and merge at the South pole.
​Inside the magnet, their direction is from South pole to North pole. Therefore
magnetic field lines are closed curves.
​Magnetic field lines due to a current through a straight conductor (wire)-
consist of series of concentric circles whose direction
​is given by the Right hand thumb rule.

​Right hand thumb rule

​If a current carrying straight conductor is held in your right hand such that the
thumb points towards the direction of current,
​then the wrapped fingers show the direction of magnetic field lines.

​The strength of the magnetic field at he centre of the loop(coil)

​The strength of the magnetic field at he centre of the loop(coil)depends on:
​(i) The radius of the coil- The strength of the magnetic field is inversely
proportional to the radius of the coil.
​If the radius increases, the magnetic strength at the centre decreases.

​(ii) The number of turns in the coil: As the number of turns in the coil
increase, the magnetic strength at the centre increases,
​because the current in each circular turn is having the same direction, thus the
field due to each turn adds up.
​(iii) The strength of the current flowing in the coil: as the strength of the
current increases, the strength of thee magnetic fields also increases.

​Solenoid
​(i) A coil of many turns of insulated copper wire wrapped in the shape of a
cylinder is called a Solenoid.
​(ii) Magnetic field produced by a Solenoid is similar to a bar magnet.
​(iii) The strength of magnetic field is proportional to the number of turns &
magnitude of current.

​Electromagnet:
​An electromagnet consists of a long coil of insulated copper wire wrapped on
a soft iron core.
​An electromagnet consists of a long coil of insulated copper wire wrapped on
a soft iron core.

​Fleming‘s Left hand rule:

​Stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of left hand such that they are
mutually perpendicular.
​Forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field and centre finger in the
direction of current, then the thumb gives the direction of force acting
​on the conductor.

​Electric motor
​A device that converts electric energy to mechanical energy.

​Principle of Electric motor:

​When a rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field and a current is passed
through it, force acts on the coil, which rotates it continuously.
​With the rotation of the coil, the shaft attached to it also rotates.

​Electromagnetic induction:
​Electricity production as a result of magnetism (induced current) is called
Electromagnetic induction.
​Fleming‘s Right hand rule:
​It gives the direction of induced current.Stretch the thumb, forefinger and
middle finger of right hand such that
​they are mutually perpendicular.

​Forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field and centre finger in the
direction of induced current, then the thumb gives the direction of motion
​of the conductor.

​Electric generator
​A devise that converts mechanical energy to electric energy.
​Electric generator is of two types:
​(i) A.C generator
​(ii) D. C generator

​Electric generator works on the priniciple of Electromagnetic induction

​Domestic electric circuits

​We receive electric supply through mains supported through the poles or
cables.
​In our houses we receive AC electric power of 220V with a frequency of
50Hz.

​The 3 wires are:

​(i) Live wire: (Red insulated, Positive)
​(ii) Neutral wire: (Black insulated, Negative)
​(iii) Earth wire: (Green insulated) for safety measure to ensure that any
leakage of current to a metallic body does not give any serious shock to a
user.

​MORE CONCEPT
​Short circuit is caused by touching of live wires and neutral wire
​Fuse is a protective device used for protecting the circuits from short
circuiting and over loading.

Topic:69
​Sources of Energy
Characteristics of a good fuel
​(a) High calorific value
​(b) Less smoke
​(c) Less residue after burning
​(d) Easy availability
​(e) Inexpensive
​(f) Easy to store and transport

​Fossil fuels
​Fossil fuels were formed millions of years ago, when plants and animal
remains got buried under the earth and were subjected to high temperature
​and pressure conditions.
​E.g.: Coal, Petroleum, etc.
​These fossil fuels are non renewable sources of energy and cause
environmental problems due to pollution.

​Thermal power plants:

​(i) Use coal, petroleum and natural gas to produce thermal electricity.
​(ii) Electricity transmission is very efficient.
​(iii)The steam produced by burning the fossil fuels runs the turbine to
produce electricity

​Hydro power plant:

​(i)It is the most conventional renewable energy source obtained from water
falling from a great height.
​(ii)It is clean & non polluting source of energy.
​(iii)Dams are constructed to collect water flowing in high altitude rivers. The
stored water has a lot of potential energy.
​(iv)When water is allowed to fall from a height, potential energy changes to
kinetic energy, which rotates the turbines to produce electricity.

​Disadvantages of Hydro power plant:

​(i) Highly expensive to construct.
​(ii ) Dams cannot be constructed on all river sites.
​(iii) Large areas o human habitation and agricultural fields get submerged.
​(iv) People face social and environmental problems.

​Non conventional sources

​(1) Bio mass
​(2) Wind energy:
​(3) Solar energy
​(4) Geo thermal energy
​(5) Nuclear energy
​(6) Energy from the sea

​Bio mass
​It is the source of the conventionally used fuels that are used in our country.
​E.g.: Cow dung cakes, fire-wood, coal, charcoal etc.

​Bio gas:
​It is a mixture of gases produced during decomposition of bio mass in the
absence of Oxygen. (Anaerobic Respiration).
​Methane is the major component of bio gas.

​Bio gas plants:

​Animal dung, sewage, crop residues, vegetable wastes, poultry droppings,
etc. are used to produce Bio gas in Bio gas plants.

​Wind energy:
​It can be converted into mechanical and electrical energy.
​Kinetic energy of the wind is used in running of wind mills, which are used
to lift water, grind grains, etc.

​Wind mill Advantages:

​(i) Eco friendly
​(ii) Renewable
​Disadvantages:
​(i) Wind speed not uniform always.
​(ii) Needs a large area to erect series of wind mills.
​(iii) Big amount of investment is needed.
​(iv) Out put is less as compared to investment

​Solar energy
​Solar radiations can be converted electricity through solar cells (photovoltaic
cells).
​Photovoltaic cells convert solar radiations directly into electricity through
silicon solar cells.
​Solar cells arrange on a large flat sheets form a solar panel.
​Solar cookers are painted black from outside and a large glass plate to trap
solar radiations by green house effect.

​Advantages of Solar cookers:

​(i) Eco friendly
​(ii) Renewable
​(iii) Used in rural areas.
​(iv) Retains all the nutrients in food due to slow cooking.

​Disadvantages of solar cooker:

​(i) Silicon cells are expensive.
​(ii) Solar radiations are not uniform over earth‘s surface.
​(iii) Cannot be used at night or on cloudy days.
​(iv) Cannot be used to make chapattis for frying as these require a
temperature of 1400C or more.
​(Maximum temperature of 1000C only can be achieved in a solar cooker)

​Other solar devices- Solar water heater, Solar furnace.

​Geo thermal energy
​(i) Energy harnessed from the heat of the sun is called Geo thermal energy.
​(ii) Magma is formed when this heat melts the rocks. The molten rocks and
hot gases are called magma
​(iii)The magma gets collected at some depths below the earth‘s surfaces.
These places are called Hot spots.
​(iv)When underground water comes in contact these hot spots, it changes into
steam, which can be used to generate electricity.

​Advantages of Geo thermal energy:

​(i) Renewable
​(ii) Inexpensive

​Disadvantages of Geo thermal energy:

​(i) Only few sites available for harnessing energy.
​(ii) Expensive

​Nuclear energy
​(i) Energy released when some changes take place in the nucleus of the atom
of a substance, is called Nuclear energy.
​(ii) It is used for heat generation, fuel for marine vessels.

​Advantages of Nuclear energy:

​(i) Alternative source of energy due to depletion of fossil fuels.
​(ii) From a small amount of fuel, a large amount of energy is released.

​Disadvantages of Nuclear energy:

​(i) Risk of nuclear waste leakage
​(ii) High cost of setting up of nuclear plant
​(iii) Pollution of environment.

​Energy from the sea

​(1)Tidal energy:
​Locations in India – Gulf of Kutch, Gujrat & W. Bengal

​(i) Depends upon harnessing the rise and fall of sea level due to tidal action.
​(ii) Dams are constructed across a narrow part of sea and turbine converts
tidal energy into electrical energy.

​Disadvantages:
​Uniform tidal action is not seen

​(2) Wave energy:

​(i) Kinetic energy of the waves of sea are used to rotate turbines.
​(ii) These turbines generate electrical energy
Topic:70
​Our Environment
Introduction
​The environment includes our physical surroundings like air (or atmosphere),
water bodies, soil and all the organisms such as plants,
​animals, human beings and micro organisms like bacteria and fungi (called
decomposers).

​The waste materials produced by the various activities of man and animals
are poisonous to some extent and can be divided into two main groups:
​1. Biodegradable wastes, and
​2. Non-biodegradable wastes.

​Ecosystem
​An ecosystem is a self-contained unit of living things (plants, animals and
decomposers), and their non-living environment (soil, air and water).
​e.g. a forest, a pond, a lake, a greenland etc.
​There are two components of an ecosystem :
​Biotic component and Abiotic component.

​Biotic component:
​It includes three types of organisms:
​a.Producer
​b.Consumer
​c. Decomposer/saprophyte

​Abiotic component:
​Consumers can be further divided into three groups : herbivores, carnivores
and omnivores.
​Planktons are very minute or microscopic organisms freely floating on the
surface of water in a pond, lake, river or ocean.

​Planktons are of two types :

​Phytoplanktons and Zooplanktons.

​The microscopic aquatic plants freely floating on the surface of water are
called phytoplanktons.
​The microscopic aquatic animals freely floating on water are called
zooplanktons.
​The freely floating protozoa are an example of zooplankton.

​The micro-organisms which break down the complex organic compounds

present in dead organisms like dead plants and animals and their products
like faeces,
​urine, etc. into simpler substances are called decomposers.

​Food Chains and Webs

​The sequence of living organisms in a community in which one organism
consumes another organism to transfer food energy, is called a food chain.
​A food chain is unidirection where transfer of energy takes place in only one
direction.
​In aquatic ecosystem of the biosphere, like fresh water ponds, lakes or sea,
the food chain starts with microscopic free floating plants (phytoplankton)
​The various steps in a food chain at which the transfer of food (or energy)
takes place are called trophic levels.
​The inter-connected food chains operating in an ecosystem which establish a
network of relationships between various species, is called a food web.

​Activities that affect the environment Global Warming

​The addition of certain pollutants like the carbon dioxide gases increases the
temperature of the earth.
​The reduction in the forest cover also contributes to the heating of earth. This
is called global warming.
​Ozone Layer formation and importance Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by
three atoms of oxygen.
​Ozone, is a deadly poison. It shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the Sun.
​This radiation is highly damaging to organisms.

​Ozone at the higher levels ofthe atmosphere is a product of UV radiation

acting on oxygen (O2) molecule.
​The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular oxygen (O2) into
free oxygen (O) atoms.

​The depletion of ozone layer is due to CFC (chloro fluorocarbons).

IMPORTANT POINTS
​Flow of materials in an ecosystem is cyclic but flow of energy is
unidirectional.
​There is a continuous transfer of energy from one trophic level of organisms
to the next in a food chain.
​Ten percent law states that only 10 percent of the energy entering a particular
trophic level of organisms is available for transfer to the next higher
​trophic level.

​The increase in concentration of harmful chemical substances like pesticides

in the body of living organisms at each trophic level of a food chain
​is called biological magnification.

​The disposal of waste should be done in a scientific way.

​There are different methods of waste disposal.
​The method to be used depends on the nature of the waste.

​Some of the important modes of waste disposal are:

​(i) Recycling (ii) Preparation of compost (iii) Incineration (iv) Landfill (v)
Sewage treatment