6.

3 WIRED COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA

●​ Communications media are the means of interchanging or transmitting and

receiving information.
●​ It used to be that two-way individual communications were accomplished mainly
in two ways.
●​ They were carried by the medium of
1.​ a telephone wire or
2.​ a wireless method such as shortwave radio.

Today there are many kinds of communications media, although they are still wired or
wireless.

●​ Communications media , or communications channels, carry signals over a

communications path, the route between two or more communications media
devices.
●​ The speed, or data transfer rate, at which transmission occurs—and how much
data can be carried by a signal—depends on the media and the type of signal.

WIRED COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA: WIRES & CABLES

●​ There are three basic types of wired communications media.

TWISTED-PAIR WIRE

●​ The telephone line that runs from your house to the pole outside, or
underground, is probably twisted-pair wire.
●​ Twisted-pair wire consists of two strands of insulated copper wire, twisted
around each other. This twisted-pair configuration (compared to straight wire)
somewhat reduces interference (called “crosstalk” or “noise”) from electrical
fields.
●​ Twisted-pair is relatively slow, carrying data at the rate of 1–128 megabits per
second (normally 56 Kbps). Moreover, it does not protect well against electrical
interference. However, because so much of the world is already served by
twisted-pair wire, it will no doubt be used for years to come, both for voice
messages and for modem-transmitted computer data (dial-up connections).
The prevalence of twisted-pair wire gives rise to what experts call the “last-mile
problem”

That is, it is relatively easy for telecommunications companies to upgrade the physical
connections between cities and even between neighborhoods. But it is expensive for
them to replace the “last mile” of twisted-pair wire that connects to individual houses.
When replacements are made, however, a newer kind of high-speed twisted-wire cable
called Cat7 (Category 7) may be used, a type of connector used for Ethernet networks
but also excellent for carrying telephone and video signals.

COAXIAL CABLE

●​ Coaxial cable , commonly called “co-ax,” is a high-frequency transmission

cable that consists of insulated copper wire wrapped in a solid or braided
metal shield and then in an external plastic cover.
●​ Co-ax is widely used for cable television and cable Internet connections. Thanks
to the extra insulation, coaxial cable is much better than twisted-pair wiring at
resisting noise. Moreover, it can carry voice and data at a faster rate (up to 200
megabits per second; residential cable, 4–10 megabits per second). Often many
coaxial cables are bundled together.

FIBER-OPTIC CABLE

●​ A fiber-optic cable consists of dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or

plastic that transmit pulsating beams of light rather than electricity.
●​ These strands, each as thin as a human hair, can transmit up to about 2 billion
pulses per second (2 gigabits); each “on” pulse represents 1 bit. When bundled
together, fiber-optic strands in a cable 0.12!inch thick can support a quarter- to a
half-million voice conversations at the same time. Moreover, unlike electrical
signals, light pulses are not affected by random electromagnetic interference in
the environment.
●​ Thus, fiber-optic cable has a much lower error rate than normal telephone wire
and cable. In addition, fiber-optic cable is lighter and more flexible, and it
requires less power to transmit signals than twisted-pair wire and co-ax cable. A
final advantage is that it cannot easily be wiretapped, so transmissions are more
secure.
Wired Communications Media for Homes

●​ Ethernet, phone line network, and power line network are three ways to create a
home network.
●​ Many households now have more than one computer, and many have taken steps
to link their equipment in a home network. Indeed, some new hightech homes
include network technology that links as many as 12 televisions positioned
around the house plus computers, telephones, lights, audio, and alarm systems.
●​ Traditionally, wired media have been used to connect equipment. Three wired
network technologies are Ethernet, phone line, and power line.

ETHERNETS

●​ Most personal PCs come with Ethernet capability. Homes wanting to network
with this technology generally use the kind of cabling (Cat5) that permits either
regular Ethernet data speeds (10 megabits per second) or Fast Ethernet speeds
(100 megabits per second).
●​ Besides cabling, which will have to be installed throughout the house (by you or
by a professional installer), a home Ethernet network may require a few routers.

PHONE LINE NETWORK: USING THE HOME’S EXISTING TELEPHONE WIRING

●​ Does your house have a phone jack in every room in which you have a computer?
Then you might be interested in setting up a phone line network, using
conventional phone lines to connect the nodes in a network.
●​ The means for doing this is HomePNA (HPNA) technology, an alliance of leading
technology companies working to ensure the adoption of a single, unified
existing wire (telephone and cable) home-networking standard that transmits
data at about 320 megabits per second.

POWER LINE NETWORK: USING THE HOME’S EXISTING ELECTRIC POWER

WIRING
 ●​ Alternatively, you might want to set up a power line network, using conventional
power lines in a home to connect the nodes in a network, using HomePlug .
●​ HomePlug technology is a standard that allows users to send data over a home’s
existing electric (AC) power lines, which can be transmitted at up to 200 megabits
per second .
●​ This kind of communications medium has an advantage, of course, in that there
is at least one power outlet in every room.
●​ Some households have a combination of wired and wireless networks, but more
are going over to all wireless.

6.4 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA

●​ The term wireless describes telecommunications in which electromagnetic waves

(rather than wire or cable) carry the signal over part or all of the communication
path.
●​ Wireless use has boomed in recent times.
●​ Today, 91% of American adults own some sort of cellphone, and 56% are
smartphone owners. 19 A third also own a tablet. 20 Finally, 31% of current cell
Internet users say that they mostly go online using their cellphone, and not using
some other device such as a desktop or a laptop.
●​ Mobile devices are only one aspect of wireless communication.
●​ We consider;
1.​ the electromagnetic spectrum,
2.​ the five types of long-distance wireless communications media,
3.​ long-distance wireless, and
4.​ short-distance wireless

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

●​ The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of

electromagnetic radiation that exist in the world and throughout the universe.

Often it’s inefficient or impossible to use wired media for data transmission, and
wireless transmission is better. To understand wireless communication, we need to
understand transmission signals and the electromagnetic spectrum.
 ●​ Telephone signals, radar waves, microwaves, and the invisible commands from a
garage-door opener all represent different waves on what is called the
electromagnetic spectrum of radiation.
●​ The electromagnetic spectrum of radiation is the basis for all
telecommunications signals, carried by both wired and wireless media. Part of
the electromagnetic spectrum is the radio-frequency (RF) spectrum , fields of
electric energy and magnetic energy that carry most communications signals.
●​ Internationally, the RF spectrum is allocated by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) in Geneva, Switzerland. Within the United
States, the RF spectrum is further allocated to nongovernment and government
users.
●​ The Federal Communications Commission (FCC), acting under the authority of
Congress, allocates and assigns frequencies to nongovernment users.
●​ The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) is
responsible for departments and agencies of the U.S. government.

HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES VARY

●​ Electromagnetic waves vary according to frequency —the number of times a

wave repeats, or makes a cycle, in a second.
●​ As Panel 6.13 shows, the radio-frequency spectrum ranges from low-frequency
waves, such as those used for garage-door openers (40 megahertz), through the
medium frequencies for certain cellphones (824–849 megahertz) and air-traffic
control monitors (1,000–1,600!megahertz), to deep-space radio communications
(2,290–2,300 megahertz).
●​ Frequencies at the very ends of the spectrum take the forms of infrared rays,
visible light, and (not shown in the illustration) ultraviolet light, X-rays, and
gamma rays.

BANDWIDTH

The bandwidth is the range, or band, of frequencies that a transmission medium can
carry in a given period of time. For analog signals, bandwidth is expressed in hertz (Hz),
or cycles per second. For example, certain cellphones operate in the range 824–849
megahertz—that is, their bandwidth is 26 megahertz. The wider a medium’s bandwidth,
the more frequencies it can use to transmit data and thus the faster the transmission.
There are two general classes of bandwidth—narrow and broad—which can be
expressed in hertz but also in bits per second (bps):

●​ Narrowband: Narrowband , also known as voiceband, is used for regular

telephone communications —that is, for speech, faxes, and data. Dial-up modems
use this bandwidth.
●​ Broadband: In general, broadband refers to telecommunications in which a wide
band of frequencies is available to transmit information, which means it can be
sent on many different frequencies concurrently, so that more can be transmitted
within a given amount of time (Chapter 2, p. 52). This resembles the situation in
which more lanes on a highway allow more cars to travel on it at the same time.

Broadband is used to transmit high-speed data and high-quality audio and video.
Transmission speeds are 1.5 megabits per second for regular broadband to 1 gigabit per
second or more for super-broadband and ultra-broadband. Today in the United States
average download broadband speed is 7.4 megabits per second, twice as fast as it was
two years ago. This puts the United States in eighth place in the world, up from 22nd in
2009.

The United States has had the reputation of lagging behind Europe and Asia in
broadband networks, but by many measures it leads the world, and the networks are
improving at a more rapid rate than those of other countries. Over the last three years,
U.S. broadband systems have doubled in speed, while Europe’s have not changed. Today,
82% of U.S. homes have access to speeds in excess of 100 megabits per second, whereas
in Europe, only 2% of the population does so.

Varying wave size.

●​ Waves in the electromagnetic spectrum range in size from very long radio waves
the size of buildings to very short gamma rays smaller than the size of the
nucleus of an atom.

WAP: WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL

●​ Wireless handheld devices such as cellphones use the Wireless Application

Protocol for connecting wireless users to the World Wide Web.
 ●​ Just as the protocol TCP/IP was designed to give you a wired connection to your
Internet access provider, the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a standard
designed to link nearly all mobile devices to your telecommunications carrier’s
wireless network and content providers.
●​ WAP is supported by all operating systems, just as TCP/IP is. (Note that the
acronym WAP is also used for wireless access point)

Five Types of Wireless Communications Media

The five types of wireless media are infrared transmission, broadcast radio, cellular
radio, microwave radio, and communications satellite.

INFRARED TRANSMISSION

●​ Infrared wireless transmission sends data signals using infrared-light waves at a

frequency too low (1–16 megabits per second) for human eyes to receive and
interpret.
●​ Infrared ports ( IrDA, for Infrared Data Association, discussed in Chapter 4, p.
221) can be found on some laptop computers, digital cameras, and printers, as
well as wireless mice.
●​ TV remote-control units use infrared transmission.
●​ The drawbacks are that line-of-sight communication is required—there must be
an unobstructed view between transmitter and receiver—and transmission is
confined to short range.

BROADCAST RADIO

●​ When you tune in to an AM or FM radio station, you are using broadcast radio , a
wireless transmission medium that sends data over long distances at up to 2
megabits per second — between regions, states, or countries.
●​ A transmitter is required to send messages and a receiver to receive them;
sometimes both sending and receiving functions are combined in a transceiver.
●​ In the lower frequencies of the radio spectrum, several broadcast radio bands are
reserved not only for conventional AM/FM radio but also for broadcast television,
CB (citizens band) radio, ham (amateur) radio, cellphones, and private radio-band
mobile services (such as police, fire, and taxi dispatch).
 ●​ Some organizations use specific radio frequencies and networks to support
wireless communications.
●​ For example, UPC (Universal Product Code) bar-code readers (p. 262) are used by
grocery store clerks restocking store shelves to communicate with a main
computer so that the store can control inventory levels.
●​ In addition, there are certain web-enabled devices that follow standards such as
Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity), as we discuss in a few pages.

CELLULAR RADIO

●​ Actually a form of broadcast radio, cellular radio is widely used for cellphones
and wireless modems, using high-frequency radio waves to transmit voice and
digital messages.
●​ Unlike CB (citizens band) radio, used by truck drivers, which has a few radio
channels that everyone must share, cellular radio channels are reused
simultaneously in nearby geographic areas, yet customers do not interfere with
one another’s calls.

MICROWAVE RADIO

●​ Microwave radio transmits voice and data at 45 megabits per second through
the atmosphere as superhigh-frequency radio waves called microwaves, which
vibrate at 2.4 gigahertz (2.4 billion hertz) per second or higher.
●​ These frequencies are used not only to operate microwave ovens but also to
transmit messages between ground-based stations and satellite communications
systems.
●​ One short-range microwave standard used for communicating data isBluetooth,
as we shall discuss.

Nowadays horn-shaped microwave reflective dishes, which contain transceivers and

antennas, are nearly everywhere—on towers, buildings, and hilltops. Why, you might
wonder, do we have to interfere with nature by putting a microwave dish on top of a
mountain?

As with infrared waves, microwaves are line of sight; they cannot bend around corners
or around Earth’s curvature, so there must be an unobstructed view between transmitter
and receiver. Thus, microwave stations need to be placed within 25–30 miles of each
other, with no obstructions in between. The size of the dish varies with the distance
(perhaps 2–4 feet in diameter for short distances, 10 feet or more for long distances). In a
string of microwave relay stations, each station will receive incoming messages, boost
the signal strength, and relay the signal to the next station. More than half of today’s
telephone systems use dish microwave transmission. However, the airwaves are
becoming so saturated with microwave signals that future needs will have to be satisfied
by other channels, such as satellite systems.

COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITES

●​ To avoid some of the limitations of microwave Earth stations, communications

companies have added microwave “sky stations”—communications satellites.
●​ Communications satellites are microwave relay stations in orbit around Earth.
●​ Transmitting a signal from a ground station to a satellite is called uplinking; the
reverse is called downlinking.
●​ The delivery process will be slowed if, as is often the case, more than one satellite
is required to get the message delivered. Satellites cost from $300 million to $700
million each. A satellite launch costs between $50! million and $400 million.
Communications satellites are the basis for the Global Positioning System (GPS),
as we shall discuss.

Satellite systems may occupy one of three zones in space: GEO, MEO, and LEO.

GEO:

●​ The highest level, known as geostationary Earth orbit (GEO), is 22,300 miles and
up and is always directly above the equator.
●​ Because satellites in this orbit travel at the same speed as Earth’s rotation, they
appear to an observer on the ground to be stationary in space—that is, they are
geo-stationary. Consequently, microwave Earth stations are always able to beam
signals to a fixed location above.
●​ The orbiting satellite has solar-powered transceivers to receive the signals,
amplify them, and retransmit them to another Earth station. At this high orbit,
fewer satellites are required for global coverage; however, their quarter-second
delay (latency, or lag) makes two way conversations and real-time online activities
difficult.
MEO:

●​ The medium-Earth orbit (MEO) is 5,000–10,000 miles up. It requires more

satellites for global coverage than does GEO.

LEO:

●​ The low-Earth orbit (LEO) is 200–1,000 miles up and has no signal delay. LEO
satellites may be smaller and are much cheaper to launch.

Long-Distance Wireless: One-Way Communication

●​ GPS is an important one-way wireless communications technology.

●​ Mobile wireless communications have been around for some time. The Detroit
Police Department started using two-way car radios in 1921. Mobile telephones
were introduced in 1946. Today, however, we are in the midst of an explosion in
mobile wireless use that is making worldwide changes.
●​ There are essentially two ways to move information through the air long distance
on radio frequencies—one way and two way.
●​ One-way communications, discussed below, is typified by the satellite navigation
system known as the Global Positioning System and by some pagers.
●​ Two-way communication, described on page 335, is exemplified by cellphones.

GPS SYSTEMS

●​ A $10 billion infrastructure developed by the military, the Global Positioning

System (GPS) consists of 24–32 MEO Earth-orbiting satellites continuously
transmitting timed radio signals that can be used to identify Earth locations.

How GPS works:

●​ The U.S. military developed and implemented this satellite network in the 1970s
as a military navigation system, but on May 1, 2000, the federal government
opened it up to everyone else. Each of these 3,000- to 4,000-pound, solar powered
satellites circles Earth twice a day at an altitude of 11,000 nautical miles.
●​ A GPS receiver—handheld or mounted in a vehicle, plane, or boat—can pick up
transmissions from any four satellites, interpret the information from each, and
pinpoint the receiver’s longitude, latitude, and altitude. ( • See Panel 6.14 .) The
 system is accurate within 3–50 feet, with 10 feet being the norm. Most
smartphones include a GPS.

The limitations of GPS:

●​ Not all services based on GPS technology are reliable, as any frequent user of
online mapping systems knows by now. For those systems to generate accurate
directions, they need to have the latest data about road characteristics—such as
one-way streets, turns, and exits.

Geocaching. GPS is used for geocaching, a high-tech treasure hunt in which items are
stored in a waterproof container (“geocache”) that can be located in the wilderness or in
a public venue, typically not in plain view. The GPS coordinates of the cache are
published on the geocaching website, and the object of the hunt is to locate the cache
and enter your name in the logbook as well as move objects from one cache to the next.
In addition, geocachers may want to share their experiences online.

PAGERS

●​ Known as beepers, for the sound they make when activated, pagers are also a
form of one-way communication.
●​ Pagers are simple radio receivers that receive data sent from a special radio
transmitter.
●​ The radio transmitter broadcasting to the pager sends signals over a specific
frequency.
●​ All the pagers for that particular network have a built-in receiver that is tuned to
the same frequency broadcast from the transmitter. The pagers listen to the
signal from the transmitter constantly as long as the pager is turned on.

Although generally obsolete, because they are now built into smartphones, pagers are
still used in areas where cellphones are unreliable or prohibited, such as large hospital
complexes. They are also used to reach some emergency personnel and to control traffic
signals and some irrigation systems.

Long-Distance Wireless: Two-Way Communication

 ●​ There are four generations of cellular radio, used for two-way, long-distance
communication.
●​ Two-way wireless communications devices have evolved over time from two-way
pagers and wireless email devices such as the original BlackBerry, which has
become an all-in-one wireless data and voice device.
●​ The categories of long-distance wireless devices we discuss here use the
transmission medium known as cellular radio (p. 330), which has several levels, or
generations: 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G.

1G (FIRST-GENERATION) CELLULAR SERVICE: ANALOG CELLPHONES

●​ “In the fall of 1985,” wrote USA Today technology reporter Kevin Maney, “I went
to Los Angeles to research a story about a new phenomenon called a cellphone. I
got to use one for a day. The phones then cost $1,000 and looked like field radios
from M*A*S*H. Calls were 45 cents a minute, and total cellphone users in the
world totaled 200,000.”
●​ Digital cellphones are now ubiquitous. Mary Meeker, Morgan Stanley analyst,
says that the world is currently in the midst of the fifth major technology cycle of
the past half a century.
●​ The previous four were the mainframe era of the (1)1950s and the (2)1960s, the
minicomputer era of the (3)1970s, and the desktop Internet era of the (4) 1980s.
The current cycle is the era of the mobile Internet, she says—predicting that by
2014 “more users will connect to the Internet over mobile devices than desktop
PCs.”
●​ Cellphones are essentially two-way radios that operate using either analog or
digital signals. Analog cellphones are designed primarily for communicating by
voice through a system of ground-area cells. Each cell is hexagonal in shape,
usually 8 miles or less in diameter, and is served by a transmitter-receiving tower.
Communications are handled in the bandwidth of 824–849 megahertz. Calls are
directed between cells by a mobile-telephone switching office (MTSO).
Movement between cells requires that calls be “handed off” by this switching
office. ( • See Panel 6.15 .) This technology is known as 1G, for “first generation.”
●​ Handing off voice calls between cells poses only minimal problems. However,
handing off data transmission (where every bit counts), with the inevitable gaps
and pauses on moving from one cell to another, is much more difficult.
2G (SECOND-GENERATION) WIRELESS SERVICES: DIGITAL CELLPHONES &
PDAS

●​ Digital wireless services — which support digital cellphones and personal

digital assistants — use a network of cell towers to send voice communications
and data over the airwaves in digital form.
●​ Known as 2G technology, digital cellphones began replacing analog cellphones
during the 1990s as telecommunications companies added digital transceivers to
their cell towers. 2G technology was the first digital voice cellular network; data
communication was added as an afterthought, with data speeds ranging from 9.6
to 19.2 kilobits per second. 2G technology not only dramatically increased voice
clarity; it also allowed the telecommunications companies to cram many more
voice calls into the same slice of bandwidth.

3G (THIRD-GENERATION) WIRELESS SERVICES: SMARTPHONES

●​ 3G wireless digital services , often called broadband technology, are based either
on the U.S. Code - Division Multiple Access (CDMA , currently the dominant
network standard in North America) or Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM, used more widely in the rest of the world).
●​ They support devices that are “always on,” carry data at high speeds (144 kilobits
per second up to 3.1 megabits per second), accept emails with attachments,
provide Internet and web access and videoconferencing capabilities, are able to
display color video and still pictures, and play music.
●​ CDMA was established earlier in North America and thus has a bit more
coverage there than GSM.
●​ GSM is an international standard backed by an international organization, and
the protocol is more mature and more robust.
●​ There is no clear winner in the CDMA versus GSM debate; what you use depends
on your needs. Just make sure that the carrier you want to use supports the
standard of the phone that you want to use.

4G (FOURTH-GENERATION) WIRELESS DIGITAL SERVICES: SMARTER PHONES

●​ In 2008, the International Telecommunications Union specified the peak speed

standards for 4G (fourth-generation) technology as 100 megabits per second for
high-mobility communication, such as communications from cars and trains, and
 1 gigabit per second for low-mobility communication (such as stationary users
and pedestrians).
●​ 4G does not introduce any innovative applications, but it does enable faster
Internet surfing and video streaming for computers, tablets, and smartphones.
Although there are other 4G telecommunications standards (Mobile WiMAX and
WirelessMAN-Advanced), the principal one, which became available in 2009, is
●​ LTE (which stands for Long Term Evolution), an international standard widely
adopted in the United States and several countries in Europe and Asia. LTE
supports data transfer rates of up to 100 megabits per second over cellular
networks.

Short-Range Wireless: Two-Way Communication

●​ There are three basic types of short-range wireless technologies.

●​ We have discussed the standards for high-powered wireless digital
communications in the 800–1,900 megahertz part of the radio-frequency
spectrum, which are considered long-range waves.
●​ Now let us consider low-powered wireless communications in the 2.4 -- 7.5
gigahertz part of the radio spectrum, which are short range and effective only
within about 30 and 250 feet of a wireless access point.
●​ This band is available globally for unlicensed, low-power uses and is set aside as
an innovation zone where new devices can be tested without the need for a
government license; it’s also used for industrial, scientific, and medical devices.

There are three kinds of networks covered by this range:

●​ Local area networks—range 100–228 feet: standards. These include the popular
Wi-Fi
●​ Personal area networks—range 30–33 feet: and wireless USB. These use
Bluetooth, ultra-wideband,
●​ Home automation networks—range 100–150 feet: and Z-Wave standards.

SHORT-RANGE WIRELESS FOR LOCAL AREA NETWORKS: WI-FI B, A, G, & N

●​ Wi-Fi is known formally as an 802.11 network, named for the wireless technical
standard specified by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
As we mentioned in Chapter 2 (p. 58), Wi-Fi —short for wireless fidelity — is a
 short- range wireless digital standard aimed at helping portable computers and
handheld wireless devices to communicate at high speeds and share Internet
connections at distances of 100–228 feet.
●​ You can find Wi-Fi connections, which operate at 450 megabits per second to
1.75 gigabits per second, inside offices, airports, and Internet cafés, and some
enthusiasts have set up transmitters on rooftops, distributing wireless
connections throughout their neighborhoods.
●​ The first standard was 802.11b, which was followed by a second standard called
802.11a. Because of its higher cost, 802.11a is usually found on business networks,
whereas 802.11b better serves the home market. Others that consumers use are
802.11g and 802.11n
●​ When you buy a router for your home Wi-Fi network, the product package
usually lists the standards as “a,” “b,” “g,” and “n.”
●​ For each new Wi-Fi standard, speed and range increase.
●​ In addition, there are new encryption methods for security and other complex
technology. Wherever the connection, it’s extremely important to make sure the
Wi-Fi connection is secure against illegal access by others.
●​ If you’re a user of hotspots, or public wireless access points (Chapter 2, p.!58),
such as those in airports and hotels, you need to be aware that your mobile device
could be exposed to wireless transmitted infections from illegal users—and you
may not even be aware of it, because the connection can be made without your
knowledge.
●​ Many hotspots do not require passwords, which means that anyone with a
wireless connection and hacking know-how can hop aboard the network. Thus,
whenever you’re not using your mobile device, you should disable Wi-Fi (in
Settings), instead of leaving it on autoconnect, so you won’t be unknowingly
connected to a fraudulent network.
●​ WiMax (for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is similar to
the Wi-Fi standard but has a far greater range—up to 30 miles for a fixed
station or 10 miles for a mobile station. WiMax is being employed by many
users, such as universities, to extend the range of existing Wi-Fi networks.

SHORT-RANGE WIRELESS FOR PERSONAL AREA NETWORKS: BLUETOOTH,

ULTRA-WIDEBAND, & WIRELESS USB
As we stated, personal area networks use short range wireless technology to connect
personal electronics, such as cellphones, MP3 players, and printers in a range of 30–33
(sometimes up to 320) feet. The principal wireless technology used so far has been
Bluetooth, which is now being joined by ultra-wideband (UWB) and wireless USB.

Bluetooth:

●​ Bluetooth is a short-range wireless digital standard aimed at linking cellphones,

computers, and peripherals up to distances of about 33 feet in casual networks
called piconets.
●​ Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth-enabled
devices enter and leave radio proximity, meaning that you can easily connect
whenever and wherever it’s convenient for you. (The name comes from Harald
“Bluetooth” Gormsson, the 10th-century Danish king who unified Denmark and
Norway.)

Now transmitting up to 24 megabits per second, the original version of Bluetooth was
designed to replace cables connecting PCs to printers and PDAs or wireless phones and
to overcome line-of-sight problems with infrared transmission. When
Bluetooth-capable devices come within range of one another, an automatic electronic
“conversation” (called pairing ) takes place to determine whether they have data to
share, and then they form a mini-network to exchange that data. (• See Panel 6.18 .)
Bluetooth allows two devices to interact wirelessly in sometimes novel ways. A
Bluetooth-equipped notebook, for example, can connect through a similarly enabled
cellphone or Internet access point to send and receive email. Bluetooth is also used in
automobiles for hands-free use of cellphones. In addition to the links shown, Bluetooth
can be used to network similar devices—for example, to send data from PC to PC, as
long as they are not more than 33 feet apart (up to about 300 feet with special added
equipment). Line of sight is not required.

Ultra-wideband (UWB):

●​ Developed for use in military radar systems, ultra-wideband (UWB) is a

technology operating in the range of 480 megabits per second up to 1.6 gigabytes
per second up to about 30 feet that uses a low-power source to send out millions
of bursts of radio energy every second over many different frequencies, which are
then reassembled by a UWB receiver.
 ●​ It operates over low frequencies not used by other technologies, making it a
candidate to replace many of the cables that connect household and office
devices. UWB systems tend to be short-range and indoor applications.
●​ High-data-rate UWB can enable wireless monitors, the efficient transfer of data
from digital camcorders, wireless printing of digital pictures from a camera
without the need for an intervening personal computer, and the transfer of files
among cellphones and other handheld devices. Uses for ultra-wideband
technology in consumer networks include wireless USB, wireless high-definition
video, medical imaging, next-generation Bluetooth, and peer-to-peer
connections.

Wireless USB:

●​ Wireless USB (WUSB) has a typical range of 32 feet and a maximum data rate
of 110–480 megabits per second.
●​ Wireless USB is used in game controllers, printers, scanners, digital cameras,
MP3 players, hard disks, and flash drives.
●​ With more than 2 billion legacy wired USB connections in the world today, USB
is the de facto standard in the personal computing industry.
●​ Now these fast connections are available in the wireless world, with the
introduction of wireless USB.
●​ Wireless USB combines the speed and security of wired technology with the ease
of use of wireless technology.
●​ Wireless USB supports robust high-speed wireless connectivity by using a
common UWB radio platform as developed by the WiMedia Alliance.
●​ The wireless standard will preserve the functionality of wired USB while also
unwiring the cable connection and providing enhanced support for streaming
media devices and peripherals.

SHORT-RANGE WIRELESS FOR HOME AUTOMATION NETWORKS: INSTEON,

ZIGBEE, & Z-WAVE

●​ Home automation networks (smart homes)—those that link switches and sensors
around the house and yard—use low-power, narrowband wireless technology,
 which operate in a range of 100–150 feet but at relatively slow data rates of
13.1–250 kilobits per second.
●​ The current standards are Insteon ( www.insteon.net/about-howitworks.html ),
ZigBee ( www.zigbee.org ), and Z-Wave ( www.zwaveproducts.com ). All three are
so-called mesh technologies — networked devices equipped with two-way radios
that can communicate with each other rather than just with the controller, the
device that serves as central command for the network.

Insteon:

●​ Insteon combines electric power line and wireless technologies and is capable of
sending data at 13.1 kilobits a second at a typical range of 150 feet. With this kind
of technology, you might drive up to your house, and the garage-door device
would recognize your car and open to let you in. The lights would come on, and
your favorite radio station would start playing.

ZigBee:

●​ ZigBee is an entirely wireless, very power-efficient technology that can send data
at 128 kilobytes per second at a range of about 250 feet.
●​ It is primarily touted as sensor network technology and can be used in everything
from automatic meter readers and medical sensing and monitoring devices to
wireless smoke detectors and TV remote controls.
●​ One of the best features is that it can run for years on inexpensive batteries,
eliminating the need to be plugged into an electric power line.

Z-Wave:

●​ Z-Wave is also an entirely wireless, power-efficient technology, which can send

data at 127 kilobits per second to a range of 100 feet. With a Z-Wave home, you
could program the lights to go on when the garage door opens. You could
program devices remotely, turning up the thermostat on the drive home from
work.