Classification of

Steel and Its Alloys

 Ferrous metals
Steels Cast Irons
Plain carbon steels Grey Iron

Low carbon steels White Iron

Medium carbon steels Malleable & Ductile Irons

High carbon steels

Low alloy steels

High alloy steels

Stainless & Tool steels

 Steels and Al alloys are the most widely used alloys

 Other important classes are Cu alloys, Mg alloys,
Ni alloys and Ti alloys, etc.
 Steels Cast Irons
<2 wt% C 3-5 wt% C

T(°C)
1600
d
1400 L

g +L
1200 g 1148°C L+Fe3C
austenite Eutectic:
1000 4.30

g +Fe3C
a 800
727°C Fe 3 C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 a +Fe3C

400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C
 Steel is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron

 Theoretically, steel has a maximum of 2% carbon

 In practice, the amount of carbon rarely exceeds 0.8%

1. Low carbon 2. Medium carbon 3. High carbon
 Good  Can be quenched  Low toughness and
formability and to form martensite formability
weldability or bainite  Good hardness and
 Strengthening  Compromising wear resistance
by coldwork structure between  Can form
 Structure ductility and martensite by
usually pearlite strength quenching but risk
and ferrite of cracking
 High strength and stiffness, reasonable toughness, easy to
recycle and low cost
 Rust easily, require surface protection
 Carbon < 0.2wt%
 Used wherever soft, deformable materials are
needed
 Eg. structural sections, rivets, nails, wire, pipe.
 Carbon = 0.2 - 0.4wt%
 Used where higher strength is
required
 E.g. gears, shafts, axles, rods, etc.

shaft
gears
 Carbon = 0.8 - 1.7 (2.0)wt%
 used where high hardness is required
 E.g. hammers, chisels, drills, springs.

hammer
 Bi, Pb - improve machinability
 B 0.001-0.003% - powerful hardenability agent
 Cr 0.5-2% - increase hardenability, 4-18% - corrosion. resist.
 Cu 0.1-0.4% corrosion resistance
 Mn 0.25-0.4% - combine with S to prevent brittleness
 Mo 0.2-5% - stable carbides
 Ni 2-5% - more tough, 12-20% - corrosion resistance
 Si 0.2-0.7% - strength, 2% - spring, higher% - magnetic p.
 S 0.08-0.15% - free machining
 Ti - fix C in inert particles, reduce mart. harden. in Cr steels
 W - hardness at high temperature
 V - stable carbide, inc. strength with remain ductility, fine grain
 In 1913, English metallurgist Harry Brearly,
working on a project to improve rifle barrels,
accidentally discovered that adding chromium to low carbon steel
gives it stain resistance

Stainless steels are iron base alloys that contain a

minimum of approximately 11% Cr, the amount
needed to prevent the formation of rust in
unpolluted atmosphere.

Main alloying elements (Cr, Ni and C)

 Stainless steels are stainless because of passivation
A protective layer of oxides on the surface of a metal which
resists corrosion, Cr2O3

0.2
Corrosion Rate
(mm/year)

0.1

0
0 5 10
% Chromium
so stainless steels have poor corrosion resistance in low-
oxygen and poor circulation environments.

In seawater, chlorides from the salt will attack and destroy

the passive film more quickly than it can be repaired in a low
oxygen environment.
 Stainless steels can be divided into five families.
 Austenitic
 Ferritic
 Martensitic
 Martensitic-Austenitic
 Ferritic-Austenitic
 These families are based on the polymorphic crystal
structures of iron
Series Alloys Structure
200 Cr, Ni, Mn or Ni Austenitic
300 Cr and Ni Austenitic
400 Cr, (C) Ferritic or martensitic
500 Low Cr (<12%) and (C) Martensitic
 Austenitic
Susceptible to SCC.
 Martensitic
Application: when high mechanical strength and wear resistance
combined with some degree of corrosion resistance are required.
 Ferritic
Higher resistance to SCC than austenitic SS. temperature ductility.
 Duplex (austenitic + ferritic)
Has enhanced resistance to SCC with corrosion resistance performance
similar to AISI 316 SS.
 Precipitation hardening
Have the highest strength but require proper heat-treatment to develop
the correct combination of strength and corrosion resistance.
 Martensitic
1000 Martensitic-Austenitic
Stress (MPa)

750
Ferritic-Austenitic
500
250 Ferritic Austenitic

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Strain (%)
 Carbon tool steels: 0.8~1.2%C
High alloy tool steels are often alloyed
with Mo, V, W, Cr and/or Ni.

Used where extreme hardness is required.

Ductility/toughness usually sacrificed

E.g. Moulds and dies, saws, cutting tools, punches

 Wear Resistant, High Strength and Tough
 High Carbon steels
 Modified by alloy additions
 AISI-SAE Classification
 Letter & Number Identification
• Letters pertain to significant characteristic
– W,O,A,D,S,T,M,H,P,L,F
– E.g. A is Air-Hardening medium alloy

• Numbers pertain to material type

– 1 thru 7
– E.g. 2 is Cold-work
 Hot hardness
 High hot hardness means higher speeds and feed rates
(higher production rates and lower costs).
 Toughness and Impact strength
 Tool does not chip or fracture
 Thermal shock resistance
 Wear resistance
 Tool does not have to be replaced as often
 Chemical stability and inertness
 To minimize adverse reactions
Chip Breakers can be used to
prevent discontinuous chips
from forming.
 Excessive temperature lowers
the strength, hardness, stiffness,
and wear resistance of the
cutting tool; tools also may
soften and undergo plastic
deformation; thus tool shape is
altered.
 Excessive temperature rise can induce thermal damage and
metallurgical changes in the machined surface, adversely
affecting its properties.
 High-speed steels
 Cast-cobalt alloys
 Carbides
 Coated tools
 Ceramics
 Diamond
• Insert shape determines strength
• Various ways if holding insert in place
1. HSLA 2. Dual-Phase Steel
 Large applications  Quench from temp. above
 High yield (nearly twice of A1 but below A3 to form
plain C steel), good structure of ferrite and
weldability and acceptable martensite
corrosion resistance  Strength comparable to
 Limited ductility and HSLA while improve
hardenability formability with no loss of
 Resist to form martensite in
weldability
weld zone  Automotive structure and
body application
3. Free-Machining Steels 4. Bake-Hardenable Steel Sheet
 S, Pb, Bi, Se, Te or P  Significant in automotive steel
 Making chip-breaking discontinuity sheet
in structure and a build-in  Low carbon steel
lubrication  Good formability and increase
 Higher cost may compensated with strength after forming with heat
higher speed and lower wear of exposure in paint-baking process
cutting tools  Good spot weldability, crash
 Additives may reduce concerned energy, low cost easy recycle
properties such as strength, ductility
 cold working also improve
machinability
5. Maraging Steels 6. Steel for HighTemp.
 Super high strength alloy  Good strength, corrosion
 Typical composition is 0.03% C, resistance, creep resistance
8.5% Ni, 7.5% Co, 0.1% Al,  Plain C steel – 250 C
0.003% B, 0.1% Si, 4.8% Mo,  Conventional alloy – 350 C
0.4%Ti, 0.01% Zr, 0.1% Mn,  High temp. ferrous alloy tend to
0.01%S and 0.01%P has low carbon (less than 0.1%)
 Can be hot worked to get soft,  Can be used at higher than 550
tough, low martensite and easy to C
machine
 Can be cold worked and aging
with a yield of 1725 MPa and
%EL 11%
 Weldability
Cutting Tool