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Journal of Applied
“The Mysterious Disappearance”: Research in
Higher Education
assessment of a sustainability-
themed virtual educational escape
room in higher education
Enrique Gonz�alez-Mun �
~oz, Miguel Angel Gallardo-Vigil and Received 13 September 2023
Revised 10 June 2024
Jos�e Guti�errez-P�erez 25 August 2024
4 October 2024
Departamento de M�etodos de Investigaci�on y Diagn�ostico en Educaci�on, Accepted 6 October 2024
Facultad de Ciencias de la Educacion, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain

Abstract
Purpose – In this study, we assessed the educational value and efficacy of a virtual educational escape room
(VEER), called “The Mysterious Disappearance”, for training pre-service teachers.
Design/methodology/approach – “The Mysterious Disappearance” was developed ad hoc and contains
various activities and puzzles focussing on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The research will
evaluate the design quality and satisfaction of 193 participants regarding the VEER, their perceptions of
game-based learning (GBL) and analyse which soft skills are most used and which valence typology (positive/
pleasant or negative/unpleasant emotions) has the greatest impact on players’ experience. Descriptive,
exploratory factor and inferential analyses are employed.
Findings – The study indicates that the VEER is rated very positively by pre-service teachers. Overall
satisfaction levels are high, and the resource and methodology are perceived as favourable. The design quality
of the resource is also well rated, with participants perceiving it as a challenging but engaging and well-
balanced. Participation in the VEER shows several benefits, especially in cognitive and motivational areas.
The participants demonstrated high levels of soft skills utilisation. The resource elicits predominantly positive
and pleasurable emotions. Finally, there is a positive perception towards GBL among pre-service teachers,
both as students and future teachers.
Originality/value – This study employs a multivariate analysis, using a questionnaire comprising three
scales. This study’s dual focus on participants’ perceptions, as current Students and Future teachers, provides
insights into their potential role as designers/implementers. Findings contribute to the ongoing development
of academic hypotheses, particularly by highlighting the increased motivation linked to VEER use and its
positive impact on learning. Designed with the SDG framework, the game enhances teachers’ engagement
with the 2030 Agenda, supporting their professional development and promotes values related to
sustainability. The VEER was developed ad hoc by one of the authors, and the study has potential
implications for numerous fields and areas of research.
Keywords Virtual educational escape room, Innovative and disruptive methodology, Pre-service teachers,
Assessment, Soft skills, Environmental and sustainable education
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
The increasing prevalence of educational escape rooms (EERs) across various formal
educational levels has reported numerous benefits, highlighting its cognitive and
motivational impacts, along with the development of soft skills (L�opez, 2024). Among the
diverse purposes for which EERs are employed, a small yet growing corpus of resources
aims to engage younger learners with complex issues, such as climate change and

This research was supported by Project (PID2022-136933OB-C22) “Educar a tiempo: formaci�on

Journal of Applied Research in
disruptiva y recursos pedag�ogicos de calidad como catalizadores del cambio clim�atico” RESCLIM@ Higher Education
TIEMPO funded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by ERDF, EU. Grant FPU20/03615 funded © Emerald Publishing Limited
2050-7003
by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, FSE invierte en tu futuro and the University of Granada. DOI 10.1108/JARHE-09-2023-0430

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 JARHE sustainability (Gonz�alez-Mun ~oz and Ouariachi, 2024; Ouariachi and Elving, 2020).
Nevertheless, there is a paucity of research investigating these trends with pre-service
teachers, with even fewer studies focusing on virtual EER (VEER). This population has the
potential to design and replicate these innovative and disruptive methodologies in their
future professional performance, influencing the learning processes of numerous future
generations for decades (Yeflach, 2024). This fact is crucial, given that the younger
population has demonstrated a considerable influence in climate activism and the pursuit of
sustainability (Aczel and Makuch, 2023).
In this context, “The Mysterious Disappearance” VEER was developed ad hoc to work on
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with students from the Master in Secondary
Education Teaching at the University of Granada, pre-service teachers. The design of the
resource has revolved around 3 main pedagogical objectives: (1) To present to pre-service
teachers, in a practical way, a disruptive methodology that they can implement in their future
teaching; (2) To promote the acquisition of knowledge and stimulate curiosity about
sustainability and (3) To practice and develop soft skills, that are essential for the social and
professional performance of future teachers.
The theoretical and pedagogical foundations of the VEER are those delineated in the
literature review of the study, which underscores the SDG of the United Nations, and the
implementation of the escapED framework by Clarke et al. (2017). The VEER was developed
using Genially, incorporating the S’CAPE and Sandbox-Educaci�on extensions. The original
design (Figure 1) comprised over 100 screens. Each screen presents participants with
different challenges (solving a puzzle, searching for clues, deciphering codes, among others),
designed to enhance knowledge and motivate students towards learning about the SDG, with
a particular focus on climate emergency (SDG 7, 12, 13, 14 and 15). Figure 2 presents visual
depictions of the game environments. Figure 3 depicts players’ inventory (tablet) and three
puzzles examples.
The design also incorporates modern games based on television series, including “The
Squid Game” and “Wednesday” (Figure 4).
Two pilot tests were carried out to assess VEER functionality, identify errors and analyse
its difficulty level. First pilot involved students from the Master in Compulsory Secondary
Education Teaching (target population). The duration was set to a maximum of 60 min. This
test allowed for various design adjustments, including numerous bug fixes and reductions in
difficulty and game length.
Second test involved 30 university professors. The feedback was positive, no bugs/errors
were found and difficulty was considered appropriate for the target audience.
Through the design, implementation and subsequent study of the resource, the present
research aims to evaluate the VEER design quality and satisfaction level among 193
participants; to ascertain pre-service teachers perceptions towards game-based learning
(GBL); to analyse which soft skills are most utilised and which valence typology (positive/
pleasant emotions or negative/unpleasant emotions) has the greatest impact on player’
experience. The following research questions were developed to guide the study:
RQ1. What aspects of the VEER and GBL do pre-service teachers rate favourably or
unfavourably after completing the playing session?
RQ2. Does the VEER session facilitate the development of soft skills in future teachers,
and what is the predominant emotional valence associated with this process?
RQ3. What is the impact of demographic factors, such as age and gender, on the other
variables included in this study?

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 Journal of Applied
Research in
Higher Education

Figure 1.
Game logic design of
the VEER

2. Literature review
2.1 Education in the context of climate emergency and the Agenda 2030
In a few years, the world will reach a significant milestone regarding global sustainability
and climate change. The year 2030 will mark a key point in the fulfilment of numerous
international agreements, with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development being
particularly relevant. In the same year as the Paris Agreement (an international treaty
designed to maintain global warming below 1.58C, compared to pre-industrial levels) was

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 JARHE

Figure 2.
Maps, rooms and other
relevant details

Figure 3.
Tablet interface and
various puzzle
examples

signed, the United Nations member states collectively approved and committed to achieving
17 SDG. The 2030-Agenda seek to eradicate global poverty and improve the quality of life for
all people, whilst simultaneously mitigating climate change and protecting the global
environment (United Nations [UN], n.d.). Seven years on, in its most recent report, the United
Nations Secretary General notes: “unless we act now, the 2030 Agenda could become an
epitaph for a world that might have been” (UN, 2023, p. 2).
In this context of climate emergency and for sustainability, immediate and innovative
actions are required in all spheres of human society. Of particular importance is the sphere of

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 Journal of Applied
Research in
Higher Education

Figure 4.
Series and games-
related puzzles and
activities

education, which plays a crucial and internationally recognised role in disseminating

scientific knowledge, raising awareness, motivating, and promoting skills and habits linked
to the conservation of the planet among current and future generations (IPCC, 2023;
Thunberg, 2022). Nowadays, a considerable number of studies indicate that innovative and
even disruptive methods are required for sustainability education (Lester et al., 2023).
Disruptive methodologies are innovative and unconventional pedagogical approaches that
challenge traditional teaching-learning methods and aim to significantly reshape education
by the following: (1) Incorporating more effective, motivating and adaptable ways of learning
that align with the demands of the 21st century. (2) Promoting development of soft skills,
understood as personal and interpersonal meta-abilities that enable individuals to develop
effectively in the social and professional environment. (3) Reconfiguring and empowering the
role of the student as an active agent in their learning process (Zeybek and Saygı, 2023).

2.2 Disruptive methodologies: GBL and EER

There are several methodologies that the academic literature recognises as disruptive.
Among them is GBL, considered a leading trend in the field of education. GBL is defined as
the application of games in the educational environment with a pedagogical intention
(Dahalan et al., 2024; Rivera et al., 2022). This methodology facilitates meaningful learning
among players through the creation of playful, motivating and challenging environments
that encourage students’ active participation (Dehghanzadeh et al., 2023). The most prevalent
resources employed in GBL are known as serious games. The design of these games is
informed by an underlying educational intention (L�opez, 2024).
EER are collaborative serious games that can be conducted in either a physical or online
setting. In the latter case, they are commonly designated as VEER. In these educational
games, teams of players must collectively explore different rooms, search for clues/objects
needed to advance, solve puzzles and undertake tasks in order to reach a goal within a limited
time frame. There are various frameworks that designers can draw upon when creating
VEER. One of the most relevant is EscapED (Clarke et al., 2017), which has become a pivotal
approach in the context of higher education. It establishes a systematic pattern and a

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 JARHE coherent structure that designers can extrapolate and adapt to their specific context, needs,
pedagogical objectives and student population.
The use of this resources in educational contexts has become increasingly popular in
recent decades (L�opez, 2024), and has been accompanied by a considerable body of research
seeking to explore its pedagogical value, with a variety of approaches, including systematic
literature reviews, non-interventional perceptual studies and interventional studies.
A synthesis of the aforementioned reviews and research reveals the following benefits:
(1) Most participants perceive these experiences as highly engaging/interesting and is
associated with emotional elicitation, particularly the so-called positive emotions
(Yllana et al., 2023). This finding is consistent across cohorts of varying ages and
cultural backgrounds (Zainuddin et al., 2023).
(2) Facilitates meaningful learning and improves players’ cognitive processes, even
when used with complex and systemic topics such as climate change, energy
transition, or SDG (Gonz�alez-Mun
~oz and Ouariachi, 2024; L�opez et al., 2024).
(3) Enables the implementation and development of numerous soft skills (Veldkamp
et al., 2020), which are widely linked to the cross-cutting skills, highlighted in
The European Sustainability Competence Framework (Joint Research Centre, 2022).
Therefore, promoting skills required by future citizens in order to achieve fairer and
sustainable societies.
(4) Its innovative and disruptive approach aligns with “SDG4.Quality education”,
integrating technology for experiential learning while potentially fostering emotional
connections with eco-social issues, such as climate change, energy transition and
others (Gonz�alez-Mu~
noz and Ouariachi, 2024).

2.3 VEER: an emerging tool in the training of pre-service teachers

The implementation of disruptive resources on formal education, specifically VEER, has
been a topic of considerable interest and debate in recent decades (L�opez, 2024). This
indicates a necessity for a transformation in the educational paradigm and also reflects the
urgent requirement to identify more effective educational responses for the promotion of
sustainability and mitigation/adaptation to the climate crisis (IPCC, 2023; Lester et al., 2023;
Thunberg, 2022). In this context, it is crucial to examine not only the efficacy and advantages
of such pedagogical approaches for students, but also for potential designers/implementers,
namely pre-service teachers. Research studies conducted within this group has revealed an
emerging line of work with significant potential.
The study by Calle et al. (2022) demonstrates that pre-service teachers in the field of
secondary education positively value the application of VEER in their initial training. The
study highlights not only the benefits that these teachers obtain from these resources as
students, but also as future teachers, since they comment that working with these resources
allows them to learn about innovative teaching methodologies. These findings also align
with Garc�ıa et al. (2020), who posited that practical experience during teacher training
process is a predictor of a greater predisposition towards its future implementation. The fact
that utilisation of VEER with pre-service teachers does not only result in immediate benefits
for this population, but may also have a multiplier effect is of particular relevance in the
context of climate emergency and sustainability. As previously stated, in this context, the
implementation of innovative and disruptive educational approaches is required in order to
effectively impact the motivation and awareness of the population, while simultaneously
fostering the development of soft skills, essential for their functioning within a society in
which they have a recognised role and duty as agents of change (Aczel and Makuch, 2023).

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 3. Research methodology Journal of Applied
The study comprised a sample of 193 students enrolled in the Master in Secondary Education Research in
Teaching at the University of Granada. Pre-service teacher trainees, whose objective is to Higher Education
become future secondary school teachers upon completion of the programme. The entire
student population of the aforementioned Master participated in the study (n 5 201).
In order to control for potential influence of age on other variables, participants were
divided by generations. As a result, 8 Generation X participants (aged 55 to 58) were
excluded, due to insufficient representation. The retention of this small group would have
complicated generational comparisons, thereby weakening the analysis and limiting the
generalisability of the results. Final sample consisted of Generation Z (58.5%), aged 21–26,
and Y or “millennials” (41.5%), aged 27–42. In terms of gender, 45.6% of the participants
identified as male, and 54.4% as female. Additionally, the sample was also controlled at
educational level (all participants were enrolled in the same Master) and at professional
interest (pre-service teachers).
In order to collect the data, the scales proposed by Gonz�alez (2019), Romero et al. (2019)
and the SIAD Association (2018) were revised. The language was adapted to align with the
target population, and additional ad hoc items were included to explore perceptions as future
teachers, as well as a qualitative section. To ensure the validity and reliability of the
instrument, we undertook the necessary steps to guarantee alignment with the original
items. The final questionnaire comprises six sections (Figure 5), and the present study is
primarily concerned within the first five.
The questionnaire was administered during the 2022/23 academic year. It was conducted
in person, using the Google Forms platform, to reduce paper usage, and also maintain the
anonymity and voluntary participation of respondents. Data were subjected to statistical
analysis using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. A series of
validity and reliability analyses were conducted on the questionnaire, with an overall
reliability of 0.89. Given the inclusion of additional items and the differing targeted
population, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) were employed to identify the dimensions and
underlying constructs of each section of the instrument. The preliminary steps for EFA are
as follows: (1) Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test, which assess sample adequacy measuring
correlations among variables (threshold >0.05), and (2) Bartlett’s sphericity test, which
evaluate discrepancies between the correlation and diagonal matrix (significance level
p < 0.05). The criterion for factor retention was set at a variance of 1 or greater, enhancing the
clarity and validity of the results.
Descriptive analyses were employed to explore the data, and inferential tests were
conducted for each non-demographic section with the demographic variables. In order to
avoid false positives (α-type error) and false negatives (β-type), non-parametric and
parametric tests were performed (significance level p < 0.05).
The investigation has been performed in accordance with the principles stated in the
Declaration of Helsinki, and subjects have provided appropriate informed consent. The
research has a favourable report from the University of Granada Ethics Committee (na 3252/
CEIH/2023) and meets the required standards guarantees of confidentiality, anonymity and
data protection.

4. Results
4.1 Pre-service teachers’ assessment of the VEER experience
In order to ascertain the suitability of data exploration by dimensions, an EFA was
conducted on the 18 items comprising the VEER assessment section. The KMO test yielded a
score of 0.77, indicating good sampling adequacy, and Barlett’s test returned values of
χ 2 5 1599.33, df 5 153 and p 5 0.00, further confirming the suitability of the data for EFA.

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 JARHE

Figure 5.
Questionnaire sections

The analysis yielded 4 principal components that collectively explained 62.59% of the
accumulated variance. An oblique rotation was employed, which enables correlation
between factors/components. Table 1 presents the extracted components, the reliability
analysis scores for each of them, as well as the item loadings.
In order to facilitate data interpretation, it was decided that the scores of the two negative
components (VEER_NEG_ATT and VEER_BAD_DESIGN) should be inverted. This
inversion was necessary to ensure that higher values in these components/items did not
indicate a more unfavourable overall assessment of the VEER. Figure 6 presents mean and
standard deviation (SD) scores for VEER assessment section.
Inferential group difference analysis was employed to examine the potential for statistically
significant divergences related to gender and age. Two statistical tests were employed: the
Mann–Whitney U-test, a non-parametric test, and the Student’s t-test, a parametric test.
Table 2 provides a summary of those components/items that reached statistically significant
values in both tests performed, as well as the subdivision of the mean scores for each group.
Regarding students’ Overall satisfaction, which is quantified on a scale of 1–10 points, the
mean score for the general sample is 9.12 ± 1.16. A total of 47.7% of the students rated the
experience as 10, while over 32% rated it as 9. Inferential group difference analyses were
conducted to explore potential significant divergences in relation to gender and age.
However, the statistical analyses yielded no significant results.

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 Journal of Applied
Items/Components Components Cronbach Research in
1 2 3 4 alpha
Higher Education
Positive attitude towards VEER (VEER_POS_ATT)
VEER1-I would like to explore the subject further 0.85 0.90
through the use of virtual escape rooms
VEER2-My motivation for pursuing this subject has 0.85
increased after playing this escape room
VEER3-I would like this methodology to be used in 0.85
other subjects in the Master’s programme
VEER4-I prefer this methodology over the 0.84
conventional approach
VEER5-Participating in this escape room has 0.83
increased my interest in the subject matter
Bad desing: high difficulty and confusion(VEER_BAD_DES)
VEER6-I consider that the level of difficulty I found 0.84 0.80
when playing this escape room was high
VEER7-I believe that additional knowledge, beyond 0.76
what was covered in class, is required to successfully
complete this escape room
VEER8-The puzzles/challenges related to the contents 0.70
of the subject were difficult
VEER9-In many occasions, I felt lost and I didn’t know 0.53
how to collaborate with the other students
VEER10-The puzzles/challenges not related to the 0.51
contents of the subject were difficult
Good desing: teamwork and logistic(VEER_GOOD_DES)
VEER11-All members of the group were involved and 0.81 0.75
worked together
VEER12-The allotted time to complete the escape room 0.66
was sufficient
VEER13-The size of the groups has been appropriate 0.66
VEER14-The method used to randomly form the 0.62
groups was appropriate
VEER15-The team was able to work together and 0.62
communicate effectively with one another
VEER16-The solutions to the puzzles/challenges were 51
in alignment with the subject matter
Negative attitudes towards VEER (VEER_NEG_ATT)
VEER17-I would NOT recommend this type of activity 0.88 0.86
in class Table 1.
VEER18-I have NO intention of participating again in 0.86 Exploratory factor
any similar activities analysis of the VEER
Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work assessment section

4.2 Perceptions of pre-service teachers regarding the use of GBL in education

To assess the relevance of the dimensional exploration of the data, an EFA was conducted on
the 14 items that constitute the GBL perceptions section. The KMO test achieved a good score
(0.88), as did Bartlett’s test (χ 2 5 1795.59; df 5 91; p 5 0.00). The EFA (oblique rotation)
yielded 3 principal components, collectively explaining 71.70% of the cumulative variance.
Table 3 presents the extracted components, factor loadings and reliability scores for each
component extracted. Figure 7 shows the mean scores and SD for each component and item.

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 JARHE
PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ ASSESSMENT OF THE VEER

4.574.464.434.564.754.66 4.554.514.734.35 4.7 4.594.424.594.544.64

4.12
3.81
3.25 3.32 3.5
3.09
2.54

Figure 6.
Mean score and
standard deviation of
the VEER assessment
section
Note(s): Bars representing inverted items are displayed in green
Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work

Gender (x̄ and p) Age (x̄ and p)

Male Fem p(U/t) GenY GenZ p

VEER_POS_ATT 4.50 4.63 0.04/0.04 – – –

Table 2. VEER_NEG_ATT(I) 4.44 4.72 0.04/0.04 – – –
Inferential test on Note(s): Only items with significant values in both inferential tests are included. U 5 Mann Whitney’s U;
VEER assessment t 5 Student’s t-test
with gender and age Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work

Inferential group difference analyses were conducted. Table 4 presents those items that
reached statistically significant values in both tests performed, as well as the subdivision of
the mean scores for each group.

4.3 Assessment of the Soft skills utilisation during the VEER

An EFA was conducted on the 15 items that comprise the Soft skills utilisation section, given
that the KMO measure reached a quasi-perfect score of 0.93, and the Barlett’s test yielded a
significant result (χ 2 5 1917.912, df 5 171, p 5 0.00). An oblique rotation was employed, and
3 principal components were identified, explaining 63.90% of the total variance (Table 5).
Figure 8 presents mean and SD for each component/item.
Inferential analyses were conducted, and Table 6 presents those items that reached
statistically significant values in both tests, as well as the mean scores for each group, with
the data subdivided by gender and age.

4.4 Emotions felt during the VEER experience

An EFA of the Emotions section was performed, given that the KMO measure (0.74) and the
Barlett’s test (χ 2 5 591.472, df 5 21, p 5 0.00) achieved scores that are deemed adequate.
An orthogonal rotation was employed, in accordance with the findings of the literature
review, which indicate potential polarisation into two independent factors. In this case, the
results align with the expectations, with two independent factors explaining 72.09% of the
accumulated variance. First factor is associated with pleasant/positive emotions, while

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 Journal of Applied
Components Cronbach Research in
Items/components 1 2 3 alpha
Higher Education
Positive perception of GBL as student (GBL_ST_POS)
G1-I believe that incorporating games into theoretical lessons would 0.86 0.92
enhance my learning outcomes
G2-I think that game-like classroom activities should be used more 0.85
often
G3-I believe that incorporating games into the classroom could enhance 0.83
my enjoyment and engagement with the subject matter
G4-I would like my teacher to use gamification strategies in the 0.83
classroom
G5-The use of game-based activities in the classroom should be 0.79
combined with the incorporation of contemporary technological
resources (e.g. mobile apps)
G6-I believe that taking part in game-like activities can increase my 0.77
motivation
Negative perception of GBL as student (GBL_ST_NEG)
G7-I do NOT believe that this kind of activity can serve as a learning 0.90 0.82
tool to enhance the comprehension of theoretical ideas and their
practical application in daily life
G8-I would NOT like to participate in a game-like activity during 0.89
theory classes
G9-Playful or game-like activities are NOT appropriate for this subject 0.78
Perceived benefits of GBL in teaching (GBL_TCH_BEN)
G10-Using games helps students to communicate better with their 0.93 0.86
colleagues
G11-These kinds of activities are good for developing teamwork 0.87
G12-Compared to a traditional classroom, I believe that game-based 0.62
activities help students to be more active in class
G13-I believe that implementing gamification strategies or using games 0.57
in the classroom increases student motivation Table 3.
G14-The incorporation of game-like and/or gamified activities in the 0.50 Exploratory factor
classroom enhance learning outcomes analysis of the GBL
Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work perception section

PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF GBL

4.63 4.62 4.61 4.63 4.63 4.66 4.63 4.79 4.81 4.79 4.78 4.77 4.62 4.56
4.27 4.13 4.43 4.25

Figure 7.
Means score and
standard deviation of
the GBL perceptions
Note(s): Bars representing inverted items are displayed in green section
Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work

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 JARHE Gender (x̄ and p) Age (x̄ and p)
Male Fem p(U/t) GenY GenZ p(U/t)

G5 4.57 4.74 0.02/0.02 – – –

G6 4.51 4.72 0.02/0.03 – – –
GAM_ST_NEG(I) 4.02 4.49 0.00/0.00 – – –
G7(I) 3.88 4.35 0.00/0.01 – – –
G8(I) 4.11 4.70 0.00/0.00 – – –
G9(I) 4.07 4.41 0.01/0.02 – – –
GAM_ 4.45 4.70 0.00/0.00 – – –
Table 4. TOTAL
Inferential test on GBL Note(s): Only items with significant values in both inferential tests are included. U 5 Mann Whitney’s U;
perception with gender t 5 Student’s t-test
and age Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work

Components
Items/components 1 2 3 Cronbach alpha

Individual and self-management skills (SK_INDIV)

C1-Self-motivation 0.85 0.87
C2-Inquiry 0.84
C3-Time management 0.76
C4-Self-confidence 0.72
C5-Creativity 0.70
C6-Analyse and synthesise 0.55
C7-Adaptability 0.50
Management skills(SK_MANAG)
C8-Leadership 0.93 0.76
C9-Plannification 0.70
C10-Initiative 0.66
C11-Responsibility 0.55
Collaboration and problem solving skills(SK_COLLAB)
C12-Teamwork 0.95 0.80
Table 5. C13-Problem solving 0.78
Exploratory factor C14-Critical thinking 0.52
analysis of the soft skill C15-Communication 0.51
utilisation section Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work

the second factor is associated with unpleasant/negative emotions (Table 7). Figure 9
presents mean and SD scores for each component/items.
Inferential analyses were conducted to explore significant divergences in relation to
gender and age. However, it yielded no significant results for any of the variables.

5. Discussions
5.1 Pre-service teachers express a high level of satisfaction with the VEER, although there is
scope for improvement
Results of the VEER evaluation demonstrate high satisfaction levels among pre-service
teachers, with a mean rating of 9.6. These results are not significantly influenced by the
demographic variables, such as gender or age. These general and favourable results align

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 Journal of Applied
PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ SOFT SKILLS UTILIZATION Research in
Higher Education

4.54 4.62 4.75 4.62 4.51 4.58

4.35 4.53 4.37 4.3 4.25 4.5 4.25 4.3 4.3 4.2 4.32 4.15
4.42

Figure 8.
Means score and
standard deviation of
the soft skills
utilisation section
Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work

Gender (x̄ and p) Age (x̄ and p)

Male Fem p(U/t) GenY GenZ p(U/t)

SK_COLLAB 4.53 4.69 * – – –

C15 4.48 4.67 * – – – Table 6.
Note(s): Only items with significant values in both inferential tests are included. U 5 Mann Whitney’s U; Inferential test on soft
t 5 Student’s t-test skills utilisation with
Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work gender and age

Components
Items 1 2 Cronbach alpha

Pleasant/positive emotions(EMO_POS)
E1-Confidence 0.89 0.89
E2-Reliability 0.86
E3-Satisfaction 0.84
E4-Enthusiasm 0.83
Unpleasant/negative emotions(EMO_NEG)
E5-Anxiety 0.88 0.83 Table 7.
E6-Tension 0.83 Exploratory factor
E7-Frustration 0.80 analysis of the
Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work emotions section

with the VEER assessment section’s mean value (VEER_TOTAL). The EFA carried out on
this section reveals 4 key dimensions. After reversing negative items and conducting a
thematic analysis, two main categories emerge: Attitudes (VEER_POS_ATT and VEER_
NEG_ATT) and Design (VEER_GOOD_DES and VEER_BAD_DES).
Items related to Attitudes exhibit favourable mean scores, exceeding 4.43 points. These
items are linked to the desire to continue using VEER, increased motivation and interest in

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 JARHE
PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ EMOTIONS FELT DURING THE VEER
EXPERIENCE

4.45 4.54
4.3 4.21 4.07
3.59 3.7
3.08 2.92
2.74

Figure 9.
Means score and
standard deviation of EMO_POS E1 E2 E3 E4 EMO_NEG E5 E6 E7 EMO_TOTAL
the emotions section
Source(s): Authors’ own creation/work

the subject, and a preference over traditional approaches. These findings align with those of
Calle et al. (2022) and Gonz�alez-Mun~oz and Ouariachi (2024), as well as systematic reviews by
Hayden et al. (2020) and Zainuddin et al. (2023), which identified EER as highly motivating
for students. Veldkamp et al. (2020) proposed that some researchers may have misinterpreted
players’ motivation towards these resources as an indication of increased motivation to learn
about the subject. However, our study shows that pre-service teachers expressed high
motivation towards the VEER while also acknowledging its role in fostering their motivation
to learn.
Regarding Design, significant differences exist between the mean scores of its two
dimensions (VEER_GOOD_DES and VEER_BAD_DES). VEER_GOOD_DES, reflecting
positive design aspects, achieves high mean scores ranging from 4.35 to 4.73, covering items
related to group size, teamwork ease, allotted time and puzzle relevance. Notably, the
sufficiency of allotted time received the highest score in Design section. On the other hand,
VEER_BAD_DES compiles the lowest scores once inverted, covering items related to
difficulty and feelings of confusion while playing or collaborating. Veldkamp et al. (2020)
highlighted that difficulty and time constraints are crucial for effective design, requiring
careful balance to achieve desired pedagogical outcomes. Excessively challenging puzzles
may hinder completion within the time limit, while overly simple ones can lead to
disengagement. In this case, participants exhibit a neutral opinion regarding high puzzles/task’
difficulty and also agree that playing time was sufficient. Both indicators suggest that VEER is
perceived as a challenging yet well-timed experience.
The results for item VEER9 appear to be controversial when contrasted with the high
scores of items related to teamwork on the positive design section; however, it is possible that
this modest average score (3.09) may be consequence of Genially limitations, which hindered
creating an unified gaming environment for players to see their teammates’ locations and
completed task/puzzles. This situation potentially posed challenges in terms of dividing
tasks or understand how to assist one another and indicate areas for improvement in future
iterations.
Inferential analyses indicate that gender does not significantly impact on Design, but does
influence Attitudes. However, since no individual items show a notable gender difference,
this influence appears to stem from a broad aggregated effect, making it less meaningful/

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 actionable for deeper exploration. Additionally, no significant differences were found Journal of Applied
between Generation Y and Generation Z, aligning with findings by Yawson and Yamoah Research in
(2020), which identified significant differences only between Generation Z and Generation X Higher Education
(1965–1979) concerning e-learning. As digital natives, both Generation Z and Y are familiar
with virtual environments. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has standardised virtual
classes/resources, consequently, the absence of divergences in the assessment of learning
through such environments is congruent (Veldkamp et al., 2020).

5.2 Pre-service teachers express a positive perception of GBL, both as current students and
future teachers
Pre-service teachers’ responses indicate a highly favourable perception of GBL, with an
average mean score of 4.56 out of 5. The EFA yielded three dimensions; however, after the
inversion of the negative items and through thematic analysis, two main sets emerged: (1)
perception as current Students (GBL_ST_POS and GBL_ST_NEG) and (2) perception as
Future teachers (GBL_TCH_BEN).
As Students, they rated this methodology favourably, with positive-dimension scores
ranging from 4.61 to 4.66, while inverted negative-dimension ranged from 4.13 to 4.43. Sol�ıs
(2015) notes that negative items tend to yield lower scores despite inversion; however,
consistent response trends strengthen the questionnaire’s reliability, as occurs in current
study. The Students cluster items focus on desire for GBL implementation, increased
motivation and interest, and how it promotes learning connected to real-life situations.
Regarding their role as Future teachers, they exhibit a markedly positive perception of
GBL, reaching the highest scores in the section. In this case, the items are grouped into three
categories: (1) benefits for teamwork and communication, (2) increase in students’ motivation
and proactivity, and (3) potential to enhance learning outcomes. These findings align with
previous researches and systematic reviews that highlight GBL as a well-received teaching
methodology which fosters knowledge acquisition and facilitate meaningful learning,
particularly when implemented games are designed with an educational/pedagogical
approach (L�opez, 2024).
Inferential analysis found no significant differences between Generation Y and Z,
reflecting similar patterns observed in VEER, that are likely to be extrapolated to the broader
context of GBL. Regarding gender, statistically significant differences were only observed in
participants’ perceptions as Students. The divergences were especially pronounced in GBL_
ST_NEG dimension, with females consistently scoring higher. This raises important
questions regarding the nature of these differences: (1) it indicates a more favourable
perception of GBL among females, or (2) it reflects sociocultural gender role influences. It is
crucial to explore underlying factors further, as the current analysis does not provide
conclusive evidence. Results suggest that gender may influence their perceptions from a
more personal perspective, but do not affect their perception as Future teachers, where from a
pedagogical and professional standpoint, both genders exhibit similar trends.

5.3 The VEER requires a high level of soft skills utilisation to be completed, potentially
facilitating their development in a practical and enjoyable manner
Results from Soft skills utilisation section indicate that pre-service teachers perceive a high
application of these skills during the intervention, with an average score of 4.42 out of 5. EFA
identified 3 dimensions: SK_INDIV (self-management), SK_MANAG (leadership/team
management) and SK_COLLAB (collaboration/problem-solving), with scores ranging from
4.15 to 4.75. These findings align with previous studies, which posit that EER/VEER
demands utilisation of numerous soft skills (Gonz�alez-Mun ~oz and Ouariachi, 2024). Notably,
SK_COLLAB, which includes teamwork, problem-solving, critical thinking and

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 JARHE communication, scored highest in section. These results align with studies that have
previously asserted that EER and VEER are particularly effective in promoting/developing
these four soft skills (Gonz�alez-Mun~oz and Ouariachi, 2024; Veldkamp et al., 2020). These
findings are especially relevant for teacher trainees, as they will be required in their future
professional roles (Zeybek and Saygı, 2023).
Gender significant divergences appeared only in SK_COLLAB, where females achieved
higher mean scores in Communication (C15). These findings are consistent with Qazi et al.
(2022), who conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis of academic studies,
identifying differences in the utilisation of communication skills based on gender, which
indicated that females were favoured in this area. No significant differences based on age
were found. The absence of significant discrepancies in soft skills utilisation, both in terms of
age and gender (with the exception of C15), suggest VEER as an effective resource for
developing soft skills among pre-service teachers, without introducing significant
demographic biases.

5.4 Playing the VEER elicit predominantly positive emotions among pre-service teachers
Results of Emotions section reveal that VEER elicits a wide range of feelings with varying
valence among players. EFA identified two dimensions aligning with the emotional valence
typologies from the literature: (1) Positive/pleasant emotions, triggered by goal achievement
or anticipation, encouraging repetition of actions/situations that cause them; (2) Negative/
unpleasant emotions, arising from goal obstruction/interruption or perceived personal
danger, often leading to behaviour changes in order to avoid or resolve the situation that
causes them (Fern�andez, 2020).
Positive emotions scored the highest in this section, ranging from 4.07 to 4.54. This
indicates that during the VEER, players experienced emotions associated with feelings of
control (“E1-Confidence” and “E2-Reliability”) and enjoyment (“E3-Satisfaction” and “E4-
Enthusiasm”). These “pleasurable” results are further reinforced by the low scores in
unpleasant emotions, such as “E5-Anxiety” and “E7-Frustration”, which exhibited scores
below 2.93. Literature suggest that higher intensity levels of these two negative emotions are
typically associated with situations in which individuals perceive a lack of control over the
situation, resulting in feelings of significant irritation or shock due to this perceived inability
to act effectively against it (Fern�andez, 2020; Gonz�alez-Mun ~oz et al., 2024). The only stronger
unpleasant emotion is “E6-Tension”, with an average of 3.59. Anxiety is a psychological state
characterised by emotional distress, while Tension is a state of physiological and
psychological preparedness for action, elicited by a concrete and present challenge. This
Tension peak reflects a state of alertness among players, which can be attributed to the
inherent time-limited nature of VEER (Gonz�alez-Mun ~oz and Ouariachi, 2024; Veldkamp
et al., 2020). Overall, the co-occurrence of high levels of pleasant emotions and low levels of
unpleasant emotions suggest a satisfactory learning environment, which is consistent with
Yllana et al. (2023) conclusions. No statistically significant differences were found based on
age or gender.

6. Implications, limitations and further research

Findings may have implications in numerous areas and fields:
(1) VEER and GBL research: our study consolidates previously observed patterns and
trends, extending them to higher education and pre-service teachers (a less explored
population), while introducing novel insights that may open new discussions.

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 (2) Educational practitioners: findings reinforce this methodology as highly motivating Journal of Applied
for students that focus on the practical application of knowledge and development of Research in
soft skills. Consequently, the quality of teaching and learning processes is enhanced Higher Education
(in alignment with SDG 4).
(3) VEER designers: results offer a deeper understanding of pivotal elements required for
optimal functioning and accomplishment of pedagogical objectives (e.g. balance
between difficulty and playing time). Limitations related to virtual platforms lacking
servers are also identified, potentially impacting gameplay experience.
(4) Educational policymakers and public policy: favourable results suggest that
innovative/disruptive methods should be incorporated into higher education
curricula. This may guide policymakers in shaping future educational frameworks
that prioritise engagement and real-world applicability, advocating for educational
reforms that aligns with efforts to address environmental challenges.
(5) Students’ professional development: this methodology promotes utilisation/
cultivation of numerous soft skills, increasingly demanded by employers.
(6) Pre-service teachers and future generations: the application of these methodologies
with pre-service teachers has the potential to encourage them to consider replicating
them with their future students. This could result in a multiplier effect, whereby a single
pre-service player can influence numerous generations of students for decades to come.
(7) Environmental and sustainability education: the versatility and motivational effect of
VEER fosters the exploration of complex and systemic topics such as sustainability
and CC in an engaging yet profound manner. Furthermore, the development of cross-
cutting skills (The European sustainability competence framework) encourages the
acquisition of competences and values associated with a higher likelihood of
achieving the SDGs and sustainability in society.
(8) Overall social impacts: study’s results highlight the benefits of VEER utilisation,
which may potentially shift societal attitudes towards innovative and disruptive
learning methods in formal educational settings. While still preliminary, these
findings suggest the possibility of developing a more informed, skilled and engaged
citizenry, ultimately benefiting society by preparing individuals to navigate complex
challenges and contribute to community well-being.
The implications and transfers identified must be considered within the context of the
study to assess its replicability/applicability in other educational settings. Although the
sample includes all Master’s students in Compulsory Secondary Education Teaching, is still
limited to this specific group and to Spain. Excluding eight participants due to under-
representation and significant age divergence may limit the generalisability of the results.
Methodology lacks a control group or pre-intervention measurement, limiting comparisons
and to conduct more complex analyses. Questionnaire could be improved, as the Emotion
section utilises a relatively simple scale that potentially omits key emotional aspects. There
is a lack of control for variables such as previous teaching experience or socio-economic
factors. Additionally, self-reported responses could introduce bias, as they may have felt
compelled to rate the intervention processes positively. Genially and the resource exhibit
some limitations that may have influenced the study’s results. Lastly, the interconnection
between theory and practice with respect to pre-service teachers and VEER is still
constrained; however, this situation is typical of an emerging and evolving field of study.
As future lines of enquiry, we intend to refine the VEER employed in the study,
incorporating player feedback, with the objective of confirm its benefits and effects in new

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 JARHE cohorts of pre-service teachers. Moreover, the methodology of the study itself will be
enhanced with the incorporation of control groups and pre-post intervention
measurements, thereby increasing its robustness and overall validity. Another line will
be exploring to examine cognitive, motivational and emotional effects of these disruptive
methodologies with other population groups, such as secondary school students. It would
also be valuable to conduct comparative studies between the effects of designing VEER
versus playing them, as well as comparing its impacts with other types of serious games,
such as board-games or video-games. Finally, investigating the long-term impacts on
students’ professional development will contribute to the discourse on effective
educational practices and justify the broader implementation of VEER and GBL in
teacher training programmes.

7. Conclusions
This study examines the perceptions/assessments of an interventional process, utilising
VEER and GBL, among pre-service teachers in the Master in Compulsory Secondary
Education Teaching.
Regarding the VEER procedure, participants expressed unanimous and gender/age-
neutral satisfaction levels, indicating high overall Satisfaction. These findings align with
numerous prior studies that have identified VEER as a highly engaging resource (e.g.
Hayden et al., 2020; Zainuddin et al., 2023). These positive results are further explored
within the Attitudes and Design dimensions. Regarding Attitudes, participants
demonstrated a clear preference for the use of VEER over more traditional
methodologies, as well as a dual-factor motivational influence: (1) a motivation to use
VEER and (2) an increased motivation to learn about the topic being worked on. This dual
motivational benefit offers a novel perspective on current hypotheses in this area, such the
one put forth by Veldkamp et al. (2020). Design section findings indicate that the VEER is
perceived as a well-designed resource. Participants indicated that the puzzles/tasks were
challenging, but not excessive, and perceived the allotted time to complete it adequately.
These findings are in accordance with those of Veldkamp et al. (2020), who identified these
factors as being instrumental in preventing frustration and enabling the achievement of
pedagogical objectives. Some participants expressed confusion regarding effective
collaborative strategies, which may be attributed to the limitations of the Genially
platform, lacking capacity for simultaneous gameplay among players. Regarding potential
age moderation, there is no significant evidence indicating that influences this section,
which is consistent with systematic reviews that identify Generations Y and Z as digital
natives (H€ofrov�a et al., 2024). Additionally, statistical differences related to gender are only
observed in Attitudes and may be attributed to an aggregated effect, making it less
meaningful or actionable for deeper exploration.
In relation to GBL, the study presents a new perspective, examining the pre-service
teachers’ perceptions from the dual role that is inherent to them: as Students and Future
teachers. In both cases, participants showed a favourable perception regarding GBL
implementation, motivation increases following its application, soft skills promotion and
student proactivity. These findings are consistent with previous researches (Gonz�alez-
Mun ~oz and Ouariachi, 2024; Ummihusna and Zairul, 2022). Gender differences were
observed in self-perception as Students, but not from a pedagogical or professional
perspective (Future teachers), where both groups exhibited comparable trends. Conversely,
age exhibits a lack of significance, as observed in the VEER section.
Regarding Soft skills utilisation, pre-service teachers indicated that all skills explored were
employed in the resolution of the VEER to a relatively high degree, with collaboration skills
(teamwork, problem solving, critical thinking and communication), being the most prevalent.

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 The VEER’s focus on sustainability also contributes indirectly to the development of Journal of Applied
transversal competences aligned with the European Sustainability Competence Framework Research in
(Joint Research Centre, 2022), which are required to address the contemporary challenges of Higher Education
the educational and socio-environmental spheres. These findings are consistent across all
age and gender groups in this study.
Findings from the Emotions section indicate that VEER elicit predominantly positive
emotions, indicating feelings of control, satisfaction and enjoyment among players.
Negative emotions, such as Anxiety or Frustration were lower, suggesting minimal
distress (Fern�andez, 2020; Gonz�alez-Mun ~oz et al., 2024). Conversely, Tension was notably
higher, reflecting a state of alertness, which can be attributed to the inherent time-limited
nature of VEER (Gonz�alez-Mun ~oz and Ouariachi, 2024; Veldkamp et al., 2020). Overall, the
high positive and low negative emotion scores indicate a satisfactory and engaging
learning environment, with consistent emotional responses across age and gender
demographics.

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Further reading
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10494820.2022.2041045.

About the authors

Enrique Gonz�alez-Mu~ noz is a researcher and lecturer in the “M�etodos de Investigaci�on y Diagn�ostico en
Educaci�on” department at the University of Granada, Spain. He is part of the research group
“Evaluation in Environmental, Social and Institutional Education” (HUM-890). His research focuses on
emotions and disruptive education in the field of environmental education. Enrique Gonz�alez-Mu~ noz is
the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]
�
Miguel Angel Gallardo-Vigil is Professor at the the “M�etodos de Investigaci�on y Diagn�ostico en
Educaci�on” department at the University of Granada, Spain. His current research interests are
disruptive methodologies, gamification and cultural diversity.
Jos�e Guti�errez-P�erez is Professor at the the “M�etodos de Investigaci�on y Diagn�ostico en Educaci�on”
department at the University of Granada, Spain. He is the Director of the Research Group “Evaluation in
Environmental, Social and Institutional Education” (HUM-890). His current research interests are
programmes evaluation, quality criteria of environmental education and disruptive methodologies.

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