RESEARCH ARTICLES

Luminescence chronology of sediments from the

prehistoric civilisation sites along the Vaigai river,
India
S. Sathiyaseelan1,* , Kartika Goswami1 , Naveen Chauhan1 , S. Bhalamurugan1 , S. Vijayan1 ,
Ragav Ramachandran1 , B. Asaithambi2 , R. Sivanandham2 and Anil Bhardwaj1
1
Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, 380 009, India
2
State Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu, 600 008, India

the Harappan civilisation flourished due to the abundance

The banks of the ephemeral Vaigai river of southern of rainfall24–29 .
India have shed light on the history of Tamil Nadu, in- In Tamil Nadu, southern India, several research studies
cluding the pre-Sangam and Sangam eras. The plains have explored and documented the historical and cultural
on the banks of the Vaigai river were the cradle of information preserved in major river valleys, including
ancient history, culture, urban settlements, agricul- Palar, Kaveri, Vaigai and Thamirabarani (also known as
ture and industries that flourished here between 6 Thamraparni). They are still being studied in other river
and 3 BCE. Recent excavations at Keezhadi village valleys30-34 . The existence of ancient Tamil civilisation in
by the archaeological department exposed structures the valley of the Vaigai river has been documented in the
built from bricks and advanced drainage systems of Sangam literature35 . Vaigai river, draining the arid tracts
the historical past. They are buried under flood de- of southern Tamil Nadu, due to its unique geomorpholog-
posits of sand, silt and clay. Luminescence geochronol- ical features, has played a significant role in the culture
ogy of quartz in the sediments suggests that flooding and tradition of Tamil Nadu since Palaeolithic times36,37 .
and burial of structures occurred ca. 1140 years ago. Previous archaeological excavations in the Vaigai plains
have revealed remnants that pertain to the Sangam age
(300 BCE–300 CE). As documented in the 2005 report of
Keywords: Climate change, Keezhadi, Sangam age, urban the Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department, these in-
settlement, Vaigai river. clude Roman coins, Roman rouletted wares, gold orna-
ments, copper pieces, gemstones, pottery with or without
RIVERS play a crucial role in the history, culture and tradi- inscriptions, imported ceramics, industrial objects, modern
tion of ancient civilisations across the globe. Most ancient brick structures and spinning whorls.
civilisations around the world flourished on the plains ad- In the plains of the Vaigai river, tectonic uplift,
jacent to the rivers1–5 . Archaeologists are interested in catastrophic flood events, and shifting of river channels
studies on historical fluvial deposits6–8 . Paleo-channel and led to the destruction of settlements and abandonment
flood-bank deposits are among the primary repositories of in the Keezhadi area34,38 . Based on recent archaeolog-
cultural identity and historical events. In general, ancient ical discoveries, such as Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions and
settlement sites in India were swamped by extreme climatic graffiti, there is evidence that the Vaigai valley was the
events such as catastrophic floods, prolonged droughts, or site of a civilisation contemporaneous with the Indus Val-
river channel abandonment, which led to the migration ley civilisation35,39 . The ancient Tamil culture, traditions
of habitations9–14 . Many civilisations in northwest In- and civilisations along the Vaigai river have been well-
dia were directly influenced by river discharges that were documented in the 3rd century CE Tamil poems, such as
significantly affected by changing monsoon systems and Paripadal, Purananuru and Manimekalai. However, they
neotectonic activities15–18 . The sophisticated and complex lack proper chronology39 . Although a few radiocarbon
culture of the large Indus Valley civilisation has been ex- dates from the Keezhadi area are available, a more de-
tensively studied19–23 . Abrupt weakening of the Indian tailed chronological framework is necessary to understand
summer monsoon ca. 4.2 ka is believed to have triggered the time of the Vaigai valley civilisation and its history and
a major drought in the Indian subcontinent, which led to association with the changing climate. As luminescence
the demise of the Indus Valley civilisation and the mi- dating techniques provide the time of last sun exposure or
gration of populations to the East Ganga plains24–29 . It the time of burial of a sediment, they can be used to deter-
is widely considered that climate change was responsible mine the age of sediment accumulation on river terraces. In
for cultural changes in the Indus Valley between 2500 and addition to determining the depositional age of sediments,
1900 BCE4,25 . The culture–climate hypothesis suggests that luminescence dating is also used to date ceramic materials,
* For correspondence. (e-mail: sathiyamgeo@[Link])

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pottery, and bricks, to determine the time that has elapsed with 1N hydrochloric acid (HCl), followed by treatment
since their production in a kiln40–42 . The optically stimu- with 30% hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) for a few hours to
lated luminescence (OSL) dating technique is used in the remove the carbonate and organic matter respectively43 .
present study to determine the time of sediment deposition The samples were subsequently washed, dried, and sieved
at Keezhadi, and this information is used to date the burial into 90–150 µm size fractions. After sieving, the samples
of the structures of archaeological importance discovered were passed through Frantz isodynamic magnetic separa-
in the Keezhadi area. tor (Model LB-1) in a magnetic field of ∼15 k gauss to ob-
tain pure quartz separates. The separated quartz fractions
Study area were treated with 40% Hydrofluoric acid (HF) for 80 min
to remove the outer ∼20-micron alpha skin and dissolve
The Keezhadi village is situated on the floodplains of the any residual feldspar43,44 . These quartz grains were treated
southern bank of the Vaigai river, at 9°51'16.5"N latitude again with concentrated HCl (12N) for ∼30 mins to remove
and 78°11'32.6"E longitude. According to the Survey of In- fluorides formed during HF treatment. The obtained quartz
dia (SoI) topographic map 58 K/1, the study area is 93 km grains were mounted on stainless steel discs in silicon oil
from the present Tamil Nadu coast. The study area lies medium and tested for any feldspar contamination using in-
within the tropical climate zone and receives an average an- frared stimulation (850 ± 30 nm). These steps ensured the
nual rainfall of 904 mm. The Keezhadi archaeological site purity of the quartz separates.
studied in this work is located southeast of the Keezhadi
All luminescence dose measurements were performed
village. The site is on a mound called Pallichandai Thidal
using an automated Risø TL/OSL DA-20 reader system,
(Figure 1), which has a circumference of about 5 km. It
equipped with both thermal and optical stimulation sys-
covers an area of 110 acres and is approximately 3 m above
tems. The thermal stimulation system is capable of heat-
the surrounding plains. In some areas, where the soil is
ing the sample to 500ºC, at variable rates and times. The
fertile, the mound is occupied by agricultural fields.
optical stimulation system is equipped with blue and in-
frared LEDs emitting at 470 ± 30 nm (80 mW/cm2 optical
Sample collection and methodology
power) and 850 ± 30 nm (300 mW/cm2 optical power) re-
spectively. The system is equipped with a pneumatically
Samples for luminescence dating were collected during the
controlled 90 Sr/90 Y beta source delivering a radiation dose
fifth phase of archaeological exploration at the Keezhadi
of 4.70 ± 0.03 Gy/min to the sample. Luminescence is de-
site from different stratigraphic layers identified in two
tected using a bi-alkali photomultiplier tube (PMT) through
pits, KDI-1 and KDI-2. These pits are located in the
a glass filter assembly, which is chosen appropriately to
western part of the mound (Figure 1). They were pho-
prevent the PMT from being exposed to the stimulation
tographed, and the stratigraphic layers were marked based
light being used. All measurements are done in a non-
on the nature of the sediments (Figure 2). Four samples
oxidising environment maintained by continuous nitrogen
for OSL dating, representing different stratigraphic lay-
flushing during the measurement.
ers, were collected at varying depths (Figure 3). OSL
dating was performed on the samples KDI-1A (collected Furthermore, the separated quartz grains were used for
from 0.8 m depth), KDI-1B (1.5 m depth), KDI-2A (2.8 m equivalent dose estimation using the standard single aliquot
depth), KDI-2B (3.9 m depth). Some of these sediments regeneration (SAR) protocol45 , with a preheat temperature
contain potshreds and have buried the structural remains at of 200ºC for 10 s. Table 1 describes the protocol used for
the bottom of the pits. The samples were collected in light- dose estimation (De ) measurement. For all the samples,
tight metal tubes by hammering them horizontally into the the De estimated for the aliquots having a recuperation ra-
sampled stratigraphic layers. tio of £5%, recycling ratio of £10%, and test dose error of
The sediments collected from the study area were dated £10% was used for dose analysis and age computation. In
using OSL dating method at the Luminescence Physics majority of the samples, quartz shows acceptable sensitiv-
and Application Group Laboratory in the Atomic, Molecu- ity, ranging from 300 to 500 cts/Gy/mg. The shine-down
lar and Optical Physics Division of the Physical Research curve decays exponentially with time (Figure 4 a), primar-
Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad. The light-tight sample ily comprising a fast bleaching component, with little to no
tubes were opened in subdued red light (l–630 nm) in slow bleaching component.
the laboratory, and the outer 3–4 cm portion of the sam- The dose response curves were fitted with a single
ple core, which could have been exposed to light during saturating exponential function (Figure 4 a). The scatter,
collection or transportation, was removed and used for esti- overdispersion (OD), in the De values of all the samples
mating the concentration of radioactive elements and mois- was relatively low (15–25%), suggesting that the samples
ture content. The interior portion was used to estimate were sufficiently bleached before burial46-48 (Figure 4 b–d).
the equivalent dose (De ). The interior portion was treated Therefore, the central age model (CAM), which considers

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RESEARCH ARTICLES

Figure 1. Locations of the archaeological sites and the paleochannels of the Vaigai river (ETM + data).

Figure 2. The different litho-stratigraphic layers at the Keezhadi site.

the weighted mean as the measure of central tendency to Observation and results
select the appropriate De values, was used49 . The radioac-
tive isotope concentrations of uranium (U), thorium (Th) The present course of the Vaigai river is ∼3 km away
and potassium (K) were estimated using an Ortec GEM- from the Keezhadi archaeological site, suggesting that the
S8530-LB-C Profile high-purity germanium (HPGe) de- floodplain was broad in the study area. The Keezhadi
tector. For this, the samples were dried and packed in archaeological site is on a mound. The site likely represents
airtight containers for about 15 days to prevent any dis- an area that experienced a relatively high rate of sediment
equilibrium in radioactive chains. The estimations were accumulation during flooding. The sediments comprising
made by comparing the isotope concentrations against an the mound are unconsolidated deposits of clay, fine silt,
indigenous standard sample SAND-107 (ref. 50). Further- sand and gravel distributed erratically (Figure 2). The sed-
more, a set of conversion factors provided by Adamiec and iments in both pits excavated (KDI-1 and 2) are gener-
Aitken51 was used to calculate the total dose rate from the ally fine-grained and poorly sorted, capped by a loam-type
concentration of these radionuclides, assuming the infinite soil containing brown silty clay, quartz and organic matter
matrix assumption and secular equilibrium for all the nu- (Figure 3). The top layers of these two sections (KDI-1
clides. The measurements were done using Dose Rate and and 2) comprise mostly silty clay sediments that under-
Age Calculator (DRAC) software51–53 (Table 2). lie muddy (clayey) sediments. In the KDI-1 section, the

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Figure 3. Lithology with optically stimulated luminescence ages of the sediments in the Keezhadi site.

Figure 4. (a ) Laboratory-generated dose growth curve; (inset) blue stimulated luminescence (BSL) shine down curve of KDI-1B;
(b) Frequency histograms of KDI-1B; (c, d ) Radial plots of the measured doses of some samples (KDI-1A, KDI-2A) respectively,
indicating 15–25% dose dispersion.

Figure 5. (a ) Well-planned brick structure with baked bricks, and (b) Canal used for water transportation.

fine silty-clay sediments deposited overlie structures built 100–150 cm in KDI-2 (Figure 2). Well-planned building
of bricks, and the bottom of the section consists of coarse structures are observed at depths ranging from 50 cm to
sand layers (Figures 2 and 5). Black and red-coloured pot- 170 cm in KDI-1 (Figure 2), and these organised structures,
sherd layers are found at depths of 50 cm in KDI-1 and built of equal-sized bricks, indicate urban-type construc-

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Table 1. Single aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) protocol for dose estimation (De)

Treatment Observed
Preheat at 200°C for 10 s
Blue light stimulation at 125°C for 70 s (Power 70%) Ln
Fixed test dose
Preheat at 200°C for 10 s
Blue light stimulation at 125°C for 70 s (Power 70%) Tn
First regeneration beta dose
Preheat at 200°C for 10 s
Blue light stimulation at 125°C for 70 s (Power 70%) Lx
Blue light stimulation at 125°C for 70 s (Power 70%)
Preheat at 200°C for 10 s
Blue light stimulation at 125°C for 70 s (Power 70%) Tx
Second regeneration beta dose
Go to step number 7 and repeat the steps to get Lx/Tx for
X = 1,2,3 and for recuperation and recycling points

Table 2. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages and the dose rate of the sediments in the Keezhadi archaeological site

Sample ID Depth (cm) U (ppm) Th (ppm) K (%) MC(%) De (Gy) Dose rate (Gy/ka) Age (a) Discs
KDI-1A 80 1.11±0.06 15.11±0.45 2.45±0.05 24±4 2.1±0.11 3.2±0.1 670±40 23
KDI-1B 150 1.05±0.05 16.84±0.46 3.19±0.05 21±4 4.4±0.18 3.8±0.2 1170±60 15
KDI-2A 290 0.78±0.07 17.76±0.61 2.61±0.06 28±6 2.9±0.13 3.4±0.2 940±70 15
KDI-2B 380 1.09±0.05 16.05±0.36 2.88±0.04 23±5 3.9±0.22 3.5±0.2 1140±70 15

U, Uranium; Th, Thorium; K, Potassium; MC, Measurement of the components of luminescence signal.

tion by the ancient people. In the KDI-1B layer, broken the KDI-2 the two collected samples yielded OSL ages of
roof tiles are noticed at a depth of 2 m. 940 ± 70 years and 1140 ± 70 years at depths of 2.9 m and
The excavations at Keezhadi, conducted by the Central 3.8 m respectively. The OSL ages suggest that the habi-
and State Government departments of Archaeology, have tations were abandoned or relocated approximately 1170
yielded several fascinating artefacts that demonstrate the years ago due to natural extreme events, such as floods,
sophisticated lifestyle of the people who lived there. Fig- which destroyed human settlements and deposited sedi-
ure 5 a and b show remains of brick structures, includ- ments on them during the late Holocene. Detailed OSL
ing the walls, canals and other planned structures. Long ages and lithographic features are shown in Table 2 and
walls and canals were constructed with equal-sized baked Figure 3.
bricks, and also well-laid floors were made of fine clay. The
canals have different widths, suggesting that they were con- Discussion
structed to transport different types of water, such as fresh-
water, agricultural water, and wastewater. As revealed by Sediments observed in the two archaeological exploration
the structural remains, the Keezhadi people were probably pits are dominantly composed of silts and clays. Clays oc-
urban. cur not only at the top of the section, but are found as thin
The thickness of sediments is higher (3.8 m) in KDI- and thick layers and lenses amidst silty sands. There are
2 site than in KDI-1 site. In both sections, the thickness pot sherds in some silty loam layers. These characteristics
of the sediments above the brick structures differs, indi- indicate a transition from high-energy to low-energy condi-
cating that the rate of sediment accumulation was higher tions of sediment transport and deposition, as in floodplain
at KDI-2 site compared to KDI-1 site (Figure 3). The deposits54,55 .
pits consist of abundant potsherds, terracotta objects and The palaeoclimate of the Indian subcontinent dur-
clay-mud artefacts, which suggest that the area had pottery ing the late Holocene period was not stable, and most
manufacturing units in this region. rivers in South India experienced fluctuating hydroclimatic
The OSL ages of samples collected from the KDI-1 pit conditions56,57 . Vaigai river was apparently very dynamic
are 670 ± 40 years and 1170 ± 60 years at sample depths during the Quaternary and could develop the vast deltaic
of 80 cm and 1.5 m respectively (Figure 4 and Table 2). In and broader floodplain landforms58 . During the early

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