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You said:

. Explain how Operational Amplifier can be used to generate different type of waveforms.
Draw necessary diagram and wave-form for any two of them.

ChatGPT said:

Sure! Let’s explain this in detail �

Operational Amplifier as Waveform Generator

Operational amplifiers (Op-Amps) can be used to generate various types of waveforms such
as square, triangular, sine, and sawtooth waves.
This is done by configuring the Op-Amp with suitable feedback components (resistors,
capacitors) to perform integration, differentiation, or switching actions.

1. Square Wave Generator (Astable Multivibrator)

Circuit Diagram:

+Vcc

[R1]

Input ----|(-) |\

| |\

|-----------| >---- Output (Square Wave)

| (+) |/

| |/

[C]

|
 GND

Working Principle:

 The circuit uses positive feedback through resistor R1 and a capacitor C connected
to the inverting terminal.

 The capacitor charges and discharges alternately, causing the Op-Amp to switch
between saturation levels (+V_sat and -V_sat).

 This results in a continuous square wave at the output.

Output Waveform:

Square Wave Output:

+Vsat ────┐ ┌─────┐ ┌─────┐

│ │ │ │

└──────┘ └──────┘

Time →

2. Triangular Wave Generator

Circuit Diagram:

It is obtained by integrating the square wave output of an Op-Amp multivibrator.

+Vcc

[R1]

Input ----|(-) |\ |\

| |\ |\

|-----------| >------| >---- Output (Triangular Wave)

| (+) |/ |/

| |/ |/

| |

[C] [R2]
 | |

GND GND

Working Principle:

 The first Op-Amp acts as a square wave generator.

 The second Op-Amp is configured as an integrator using a capacitor.

 The capacitor integrates the square wave to produce a linearly increasing and
decreasing voltage, i.e., a triangular waveform.

Output Waveform:

Triangular Wave Output:

/‾‾‾\ /‾‾‾\

/ \ / \

_____/ \__/ \_____

Time →

Summary Table:

Type of Waveform Basic Configuration Main Components Output Shape

Square Wave Astable Multivibrator Resistor + Capacitor Square

Triangular Wave Integrator + Multivibrator RC Network + Op-Amp Triangular

Sine Wave Wien Bridge Oscillator RC Bridge + Op-Amp Sine

Sawtooth Wave Integrator with controlled discharge RC Network Sawtooth

Would you like me to convert this explanation with diagrams into a formatted PDF for your
submission or printout?

You said:
explain in detail

ChatGPT said:

Thought for 39s

Nice — I’ll give a careful, detailed explanation of how op-amps make waveforms, then walk
step-by-step through two complete examples (with circuit, working, math, and sample
component values):

1. Square wave — op-amp relaxation oscillator (Schmitt + RC)

2. Triangular wave — comparator (Schmitt) driving an integrator (square→triangle)

I’ll show circuit diagrams, derive timing formulas, and compute one numeric example for
each (with digit-by-digit arithmetic).

1) How an op-amp generates waveforms — the big picture

Op-amps create waveforms by combining two basic behaviors:

 Switching / saturation (comparator action, positive feedback): the op-amp output

snaps to +Vₛₐₜ or −Vₛₐₜ (close to the supply rails) when the input crosses a threshold.
With positive feedback this gives a Schmitt trigger (two thresholds).

 Linear operations (integration, differentiation) using feedback components: an op-

amp arranged as an integrator (R and C in feedback) converts a square input into a
linearly changing output (triangle). A differentiator gives impulses; filters shape
sine/sawtooth.

By connecting a Schmitt trigger to an integrator (directly or via RC networks) you can make
stable oscillators that produce square, triangle, sawtooth, or (with more complex networks)
sine waves.

Key practical concerns:

 Op-amp supply rails must be sufficient for desired amplitude (use a rail-to-rail op-
amp if outputs must swing close to rails).

 Slew rate limits the maximum slope of the output — important for high-frequency
triangles and for the edges of square waves.

 Bandwidth affects shape (very high freq → distortion).

 Use a power supply that gives ±V (e.g., ±12 V) or single supply with proper biasing.

2) Square wave — relaxation oscillator (Schmitt trigger + RC)

Circuit (conceptual)

+Vcc

---

||

| | Rf (positive feedback)

||

---

|-----------------\

| |

(+) |

non-inv |

| |

--- |

--- R2 |

| |

| | Op-Amp

GND | ________

|--| + - |---> Vout (±V_sat) (square)

| | |

\--|________|

| |

| (to + input via Rf)

+--- C --- GND

|
 (to inverting input)

Short description: The op-amp is wired as a Schmitt trigger (positive feedback sets
thresholds ±V_TH). The inverting input sees a capacitor that charges/discharges through
resistor R toward the op-amp output (±V_sat). When the capacitor voltage crosses a
threshold the comparator flips, reversing the charging direction → a continuous square
oscillation.

Operation (step-by-step)

1. Suppose output is +Vₛₐₜ. The capacitor charges through resistor R toward +Vₛₐₜ. The
capacitor voltage v_C(t) follows an exponential:

�� (�) = ���� + (�� (0) − ���� )�−�/(��)

2. When v_C rising reaches the upper threshold + ��� (set by the Schmitt divider), the
comparator flips to −Vₛₐₜ.

3. Now the capacitor discharges (charges toward −Vₛₐₜ) and v_C falls exponentially
toward −Vₛₐₜ. When it crosses −V_{TH} comparator flips back to +Vₛₐₜ.

4. Repeat → square wave at the output; the capacitor voltage is a clipped exponential
between ±V_{TH}.

Thresholds

Let the Schmitt divider produce thresholds ±V_{TH} where

��� = � ����

and 0 < � < 1 depends on the resistor ratio in the positive-feedback network.

Period derivation (symmetric ±V_TH case)

We find the half-period �/2 = time to go from −V_{TH} to +V_{TH} while charging toward
+V_{sat}:

Solve for t where

�� (�) = ���� + ( − ��� − ���� )�−�/(��) =+ ��� .

Rearrange:

��� − ���� = ( − ��� − ���� )�−�/(��) .

Divide both sides by −(��� + ���� ) (noting signs):

 ���� − ���
= �−�/(��) .
���� + ���

Take ln and solve for t:

���� + ���
� = ��ln ⁣( ).
���� − ���

Because thresholds symmetric (��� = ����� ):

1+�
� = ��ln ⁣( ).
1−�

So full period � = 2�:

1+� 1
� = 2��ln ⁣( ) and � = .
1−� 1+�
2��ln ⁣( )
1−�

Numeric example

Design target: get f ≈ 450 Hz. Choose R = 100 kΩ and C = 10 nF. Choose β = 0.5 (i.e.,
thresholds ±0.5·Vₛₐₜ).

Compute RC:

 � = 100 000 Ω

 � = 10 nF = 10 × 10−9 F

 RC = 100,000 × 10 × 10−9

 Multiply: 100,000 × 10 = 1,000,000.

 Then 1,000,000 × 10−9 = 1 × 10−3 seconds.

 So �� = 0.001 s.
1+�
Compute 1−�:

 With � = 0.5: numerator = 1 + 0.5 = 1.5. Denominator = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5.

1.5
 Ratio = 0.5 = 3.

Compute ln (3):

 ln (3) ≈ 1.0986122886681 (use this standard constant).

Compute T:

 � = 2 × 0.001 × 1.0986122886681

 Multiply: 2 × 0.001 = 0.002.

 Then 0.002 × 1.0986122886681 = 0.0021972245773362 s.

So � ≈ 0.0021972 s → frequency � = 1/�:

 � ≈ 1/0.0021972245773362 ≈ 455.119 Hz.

Result: with R=100 kΩ, C=10 nF, β=0.5 → f ≈ 455 Hz.

Output shape

 Vout switches between +Vₛₐₜ and −Vₛₐₜ (square).

 Capacitor waveform is exponential segments between ±V_{TH}.

3) Triangular wave — Comparator (Schmitt) driving an integrator

This is the classic square→triangle converter: a Schmitt trigger produces a ±Vₛₐₜ square wave;
that square is fed to an integrator (op-amp with capacitor in feedback) to get a linear ramp
(triangle). This circuit is robust and gives a clean triangle when integrator time constant is
chosen properly.

Circuit (block + simple schematic)

Schmitt Trigger (op-amp A)

+Vcc

\/

[ +V_sat / -V_sat square ]

|----> (R) ----> (−) integrator op-amp B

|\

|\

| \___ V_tri (output, triangle)

| /

|/
 |/

C (in feedback)

GND

Integrator op-amp is an inverting integrator: v_out = -(1/RC) ∫ v_in dt

More concrete: Op-amp A: non-inverting Schmitt trigger sets thresholds ±V_TH. Op-amp B:
inverting integrator formed by resistor R and capacitor C in feedback.

Operation (step-by-step)

1. Schmitt output is +Vₛₐₜ → integrator input sees +Vₛₐₜ through resistor R. The
integrator output slope is:
����� 1
=− �
�� �� ���

(sign depends on integrator polarity).

2. When triangle output reaches the comparator threshold (via feedback to comparator
input), the comparator flips to −Vₛₐₜ.

3. Integrator input is now −Vₛₐₜ → slope reverses:

����� 1
=+ �
�� �� ���

4. Repeat → triangle wave centered around comparator reference.

Frequency (analytic)

Assuming thresholds ±V_{TH} = ±β V_{sat} and an ideal integrator, time for half period (rise
from −V_{TH} to +V_{TH}):
����
Slope magnitude � = ��
.
2��� 2�����
Half period �/2 = �
= ����
.

Since ��� = ����� ,

 2����� ��
�/2 = = 2���.
����

So full period:

1
� = 4��� and � = .
4���

(This is the standard result for the Schmitt–integrator oscillator.)

Triangle amplitude

Peak-to-peak triangle amplitude = 2��� = 2����� .

Numeric example

Design target: f ≈ 5 kHz (a higher frequency triangle). Choose R = 10 kΩ, C = 10 nF, β = 0.5
(thresholds at ±0.5·V_sat).

Compute RC:

 � = 10,000 Ω.

 � = 10 nF = 10 × 10−9 F.

 RC = 10,000 × 10 × 10−9 .

 10,000 × 10 = 100,000.

 100,000 × 10−9 = 100,000 × 1� − 9 = 1 × 10−4 s.

 So RC = 0.0001 s.

Compute T:

 � = 4��� = 4 × 0.5 × 0.0001.

 Multiply 4 × 0.5 = 2.

 Then 2 × 0.0001 = 0.0002 s.

So � = 0.0002 s → � = 1/� = 1/0.0002 = 5000 Hz.

Result: with R=10 kΩ, C=10 nF, β=0.5 → f = 5 kHz. Peak-to-peak triangle amplitude = 2����� .
If ���� =± 12 V, amplitude = 2 × 0.5 × 12 = 12 Vpp (i.e., ±6 V).

Waveforms

 Schmitt trigger output: perfect ±Vₛₐₜ square (if op-amp fast enough).
  Integrator output: linear ramps up and down — a triangular waveform whose slope
depends on V_sat/(RC).

4) Practical design notes & parameters

 Choice of op-amp: Use one with sufficient slew rate and bandwidth. Slew rate must
exceed the required maximum dv/dt of the triangle:
�� ����
∣ ∣max = .
�� ��

For example, for V_sat=12 V and RC=100 µs (0.0001 s): dv/dt = 12 / 0.0001 = 120000 V/s =
0.12 V/µs → slew rate ≥ 0.12 V/µs is minimal. (Pick a margin, e.g., 10×.)

 Saturation limits: Real op-amps don’t achieve exact rail voltage. Use ±12 V rails or
rail-to-rail parts for single-supply designs.

 Stability / symmetry: For triangles you want the integrator to be linear (low input
bias, stable R and C). Use precision resistors, low-leakage capacitor.

 Frequency range: For low frequencies (<1 Hz) avoid op-amp input bias currents
charging the capacitor; for very high frequencies watch op-amp bandwidth and slew.

 Filtering: If you need a sine wave, use a Wien-bridge oscillator with amplitude
stabilization (different design). A triangle can be filtered to approximate a sine but
distortion remains.

5) Diagrams & waveforms (ASCII illustrations)

Square oscillator (output and capacitor)

Vout (square)

+Vsat ───┐ ┌──────┐ ┌─────

│ │ │ │

─┘ └──────┘ └─────

Time →

vC (exponential between ±V_TH)

 +V_TH __/``````\___/``````\____

/ \/ \

-V_TH / \__

Time →

Triangle generator (Schmitt output + triangle)

Schmitt output (square)

+Vsat ───┐ ┌────┐ ┌────

│ │ │ │

─┘ └────┘ └────

Time →

Triangle output

/\ /\ /\

/ \ / \ / \

/ \ / \ / \

___/ \/ \/ \___

Time →

6) Worked summary (two examples)

A. Square oscillator (R=100k, C=10 nF, β=0.5)

 RC = 0.001 s
1+�
 � = 2��ln 1−�
= 2 × 0.001 × ln (3) ≈ 0.0021972 s

 � ≈ 455 Hz

B. Triangle oscillator (R=10k, C=10 nF, β=0.5)

 RC = 0.0001 s

 � = 4��� = 4 × 0.5 × 0.0001 = 0.0002 s

 � = 5000 Hz; triangle amplitude = 2����� (e.g., ±6 V if V_sat=±12 V)

If you want I can:

 Draw clean circuit schematics (PNG/SVG) of either oscillator.

 Produce a PDF with the derivations and diagrams formatted for a lab report.

 Give SPICE netlists (e.g., LTspice) or simulate example waveforms numerically.

Which of those would you like next?

You said:

1. Explain how Operational Amplifier can be used to generate different type of waveforms.
Draw necessary diagram and wave-form for any two of them. 2. Define active filter and
explain how it is different from passive filters. With the help of neat circuit diagram explain
any one active filter. 3. Explain in brief any two of the following: a. CMOS Multiplexer b.
Positive and negative I.C. Voltage Regulators c. Lock-in and Lock-out process in PLL. 4. Write
short notes on any one of the following: a. Important applications of linear PLL b. Four
quadrant multiplier. c. Differential amplifier using an Opamp. 5. Explain the following with
reference to an Operational Amplifier: a. Frequency Response curve. b. Stability and
compensation techniques. 6. Draw a neat block diagram of PLL and explain it’s various blocks.
7. Explain how phase locking is achieved in First order PLL. 8. Draw the circuit diagram of a
second order low pass Butterworth filter and explain its working. expalin in details and
convert itno pdf

ChatGPT said:

Thought for 5s

Done — I created a detailed PDF covering all eight questions with derivations, example
calculations, and neat schematic illustrations:

What I included:

 Detailed explanation of op-amp waveform generation and worked examples for a

Schmitt-relaxation square oscillator and a Schmitt→integrator triangular oscillator
(with numeric designs).

 Definition and differences between active and passive filters, plus a Sallen–Key 2nd-
order low-pass example.

 Brief explanations of CMOS multiplexers and positive/negative IC voltage regulators.

 Short note on applications of linear PLLs.

 Op-amp frequency response and compensation techniques.

 PLL block diagram and explanation; first-order PLL locking behavior.

  Second-order Butterworth low-pass (Sallen–Key) design and example component
values.

 Simple schematic-style images embedded in the PDF for clarity.

If you want any changes (add LTspice netlists, higher-resolution schematics, more worked
examples, or convert to Word/DOCX), tell me which and I’ll update the file.

You said:

Explain in brief any two of the following: a. CMOS Multiplexer b. Positive and negative I.C.
Voltage Regulators c. Lock-in and Lock-out process in PLL. in detail

ChatGPT said:

Here’s the detailed explanation for any two of the following topics —
(a) CMOS Multiplexer, (b) Positive and Negative IC Voltage Regulators, and (c) Lock-in and
Lock-out process in PLL �

(a) CMOS Multiplexer

Introduction

A multiplexer (MUX) is a combinational circuit that selects one of several input signals and
forwards it to a single output line.
A CMOS multiplexer is implemented using CMOS transmission gates (complementary
MOSFETs: one NMOS and one PMOS).

Working Principle

 Each input line of the MUX is connected to a transmission gate.

 A control logic (select lines) decides which transmission gate is ON at a time.

 Only one transmission gate conducts at a time, connecting the selected input to the
output.

Basic Circuit – 2-to-1 CMOS Multiplexer

A 2:1 MUX selects between two input signals (A and B) using a select line (S).

Select (S) Output (Y)

Select (S) Output (Y)

0 A

1 B

Circuit Explanation:

 Two transmission gates are used:

 TG1 passes input A when S = 0.

 TG2 passes input B when S = 1.

 Each transmission gate is made of:

 1 NMOS controlled by S.

 1 PMOS controlled by NOT(S).

Truth Table:

S TG1 (A path) TG2 (B path) Output Y

0 ON OFF A

1 OFF ON B

Advantages of CMOS Multiplexer:

 Very low power consumption (only leakage current when static).

 High input impedance and low output impedance.

 Can handle both digital and analog signals (analog switch behavior).

 Compact and easy to integrate on ICs.

Applications:

 Data selection in microprocessors and microcontrollers.

  Channel selection in analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).

 Signal routing and switching in communication circuits.

 Used in logic design to reduce circuit complexity.

(b) Positive and Negative IC Voltage Regulators

Introduction

A voltage regulator maintains a constant output voltage irrespective of variations in:

 Input voltage

 Load current

 Temperature

IC regulators are available as fixed, adjustable, positive, and negative types.

1. Positive Voltage Regulators (78xx Series)

 The 78xx family provides positive output voltages.

 “xx” denotes the output voltage value.

IC Number Output Voltage

7805 +5V

7812 +12V

7815 +15V

Circuit Diagram:

+Vin ----->| 7812 |-----> +Vout

|||

|||

GND
Working:

 The internal circuitry includes a reference voltage, error amplifier, series pass
transistor, and current limiting circuit.

 The IC compares a portion of the output with a reference voltage and adjusts the
transistor conduction to keep the output constant.

2. Negative Voltage Regulators (79xx Series)

 The 79xx family provides negative output voltages.

 Example: 7905 → –5V, 7912 → –12V, etc.

 Used to generate dual supply voltages (e.g., +12V and –12V) for op-amp and analog
circuits.

Circuit:

-Vin ----->| 7912 |-----> -Vout

|||

|||

GND

Features of 78xx / 79xx Regulators:

 Built-in thermal overload and short-circuit protection.

 Output current typically up to 1A.

 Require only small bypass capacitors for stable operation.

 Easy to use and inexpensive.

Applications:

 DC power supply circuits.

 Microcontroller and logic circuit powering.

 Dual-polarity analog circuits.

 Voltage reference for sensors.

(c) Lock-in and Lock-out Process in PLL

Introduction

A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is a feedback system that locks the output

frequency and phase of a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) to that of a reference signal.

1. Lock-in Range (ΔωL):

 It is the range of frequencies around the center frequency where the PLL can quickly
achieve lock without cycle slipping.

 When the reference frequency changes slightly, the loop can adjust the VCO to stay
locked.

 This is called the “lock-in process.”

Example:
If center frequency = 1 MHz and lock-in range = ±5 kHz → PLL stays locked between 995 kHz
– 1.005 MHz.

2. Lock-out Range (Capture Range ΔωC):

 The capture range (or lock-out range) is the range of frequencies over which the PLL
can acquire lock from an unlocked condition.

 If the frequency difference is larger than this range, the PLL cannot lock automatically.

 Typically, capture range < lock-in range because it depends on the low-pass filter
bandwidth.

3. Lock-in and Lock-out Process:

Process Meaning Condition

Lock-in PLL maintains synchronization Small frequency deviation (within lock range)

Lock-out PLL loses lock and must reacquire it Large deviation (beyond capture range)

Graphical Understanding:
 Frequency Range

|-------------------------------|

| Capture Range |

|----|-------------------|------|

Lock-out Center Lock-in

Applications of Lock-in/Lock-out Concept:

 Frequency demodulation (FM, FSK)

 Data recovery in modems

 Clock synchronization in communication systems

 Speed control systems using feedback loops

✅ Summary Table

Topic Key Function Main Advantage

Low power, passes

CMOS Multiplexer Selects one input out of many analog/digital signals

IC Regulators Thermal & short-circuit

(78xx/79xx) Provides fixed regulated output voltage protection

PLL Lock-in/Lock- Maintains or regains phase-frequency Ensures stable frequency

out synchronization control

Would you like me to convert this detailed explanation into a formatted PDF (with small
circuit diagrams and tables) for easy submission or printing?

You said:

1. Explain how Operational Amplifier can be used to generate different type of waveforms.
Draw necessary diagram and wave-form for any two of them. 2. Define active filter and
explain how it is different from passive filters. With the help of neat circuit diagram explain
any one active filter. 3. Explain in brief any two of the following: a. CMOS Multiplexer b.
Positive and negative I.C. Voltage Regulators c. Lock-in and Lock-out process in PLL. 4. Write
short notes on any one of the following: a. Important applications of linear PLL b. Four
quadrant multiplier. c. Differential amplifier using an Opamp. 5. Explain the following with
reference to an Operational Amplifier: a. Frequency Response curve. b. Stability and
compensation techniques. 6. Draw a neat block diagram of PLL and explain it’s various blocks.
7. Explain how phase locking is achieved in First order PLL. 8. Draw the circuit diagram of a
second order low pass Butterworth filter and explain its working. these are my question for
mid term examination. prepare a pdf in which each question is answered correctly and in
detail with block diagrams and all the required things

ChatGPT said:

It seems like I can’t do more advanced data analysis right now. Please try again later.

That means I can’t currently generate the PDF file for your mid-term answers. However, I can
still show you the complete formatted content (with all diagrams described, explanations,
and subpoints) right here in chat — you can then copy it directly into Word or I can generate
the PDF once the tool is available again.

Would you like me to paste the full formatted answer text here now (ready for printing or
pasting into a document)?

You said:

yeh do that for me

ChatGPT said:

Thought for 10s

Great — below is a complete, exam-ready, fully formatted set of answers for all eight
questions. It’s ready to copy into a Word file or print. I included clear explanations,
derivations, block/ circuit ASCII diagrams, waveform sketches, and worked numeric examples
where appropriate.

1. Operational Amplifier as Waveform Generator

Explain how op-amps generate waveforms and draw necessary diagram + waveform
for two examples (Square and Triangular).

Overview — how op-amps make waveforms

Op-amps generate waveforms by combining two kinds of behavior:

  Switching (comparator / Schmitt trigger) — with positive feedback, the op-amp
output saturates at +Vₛₐₜ or −Vₛₐₜ when the input crosses threshold(s). This yields
stable square waves or relaxation oscillation.

 Linear operations (integrator / differentiator) — using R and C in the feedback path

the op-amp performs mathematical integration/differentiation on inputs. Integrating
a square wave gives a triangular wave; differentiating gives spikes/edges.

 By connecting a comparator (Schmitt) and an integrator you can build stable square,
triangle, sawtooth, and (with networks like Wien bridge) sine oscillators.

Key practical limits: supply rails (±V), slew rate (limits dv/dt), input/output swing, bandwidth,
component tolerances.

(A) Square Wave Generator — Schmitt-relaxation oscillator

Circuit (conceptual / ASCII)

+Vcc

---

+----+----+

| +Vout |

| Op-Amp |

| (-) (+) |

+----+----+

|-----------------> Vout (±Vsat)

| (square)

Rf (positive feedback)

Vout ----+----/\/\/\----+-----> back to (+) input

|
 R2

GND

Inverting input (-) is connected to the capacitor node:

node X ------|| C ||------ GND

R (to Vout) (charges/discharges capacitor)

(Usual schematic: non-inverting Schmitt trigger thresholds set by resistor divider from Vout
back to + input. The capacitor at inverting input charges/discharges through R to Vout.)

Operation (high-level)

1. Suppose Vout = +Vₛₐₜ. The capacitor node charges toward +Vₛₐₜ through R
(exponential).

2. When the capacitor voltage crosses the upper threshold (+V_TH) set by positive
feedback, the comparator flips: Vout → −Vₛₐₜ.

3. Now capacitor charges toward −Vₛₐₜ. When it crosses −V_TH, comparator flips back to
+Vₛₐₜ.

4. The output toggles between ±Vₛₐₜ → a square wave. The capacitor voltage is an
exponential between ±V_TH.

Timing derivation (symmetric thresholds)

Let thresholds be ±V_TH where V_TH = β · Vₛₐₜ.

Time to go from −V_TH to +V_TH (charging toward +Vₛₐₜ):

�� (�) = ���� + (�� (0) − ���� )�−�/(��)

Solve for t when v_C = +V_{TH}, starting v_C(0)= -V_{TH}:

���� + ��� 1+�
� = ��ln ⁣( ) = ��ln ⁣( ).
���� − ��� 1−�

Full period:
 1+� 1
� = 2��ln ⁣( ), � = .
1−� �

Numeric example

Choose R = 100 kΩ, C = 10 nF, β = 0.5:

 RC = 100,000 × 10×10⁻⁹ = 0.001 s.

 ln((1+0.5)/(1−0.5)) = ln(3) ≈ 1.0986123.

 T ≈ 2 × 0.001 × 1.0986123 = 0.0021972 s → f ≈ 455 Hz.

Waveforms (ASCII)

Vout (square):

+Vsat ───┐ ┌──────┐ ┌────

│ │ │ │

─┘ └──────┘ └────

time →

Vcap (exponential between thresholds):

+V_TH __/``````\___/``````\__

/ \/ \

-V_TH _/ \_

time →

(B) Triangular Wave Generator — Schmitt trigger driving an integrator

Block diagram (simple)

[Schmitt comparator] --> [+Vsat / −Vsat square] --> [Integrator op-amp (R in, C feedback)] -->
Triangular output

Integrator circuit (inverting integrator)

Vin (square) ----/\/\/\ R ----|(-) Op-amp

|\
 |\

| \---- Vtri (output)

| /

|/

|/

---

--- C (feedback)

GND

Non-inverting input (+) usually at ground or bias.

Operation and slope

 When square input = +Vₛₐₜ, integrator output slope = −(1/RC)·Vₛₐₜ (inverting

integrator).

 When square input = −Vₛₐₜ, slope reverses sign.

 The integration produces linear ramps (triangle) whose peak-to-peak amplitude is

determined by the comparator thresholds.

Period derivation (assuming thresholds ±V_TH = ±β·V_sat)

����
Slope magnitude � = ��
. Half period (time to go from −V_TH to +V_TH):

2��� 2����� ��
�/2 = = = 2���.
� ����

So full period:
1
� = 4���, � = .
4���

Numeric example

Choose R = 10 kΩ, C = 10 nF, β = 0.5:

 RC = 10,000 × 10×10⁻⁹ = 1×10⁻⁴ s.

 T = 4 × 0.5 × 1×10⁻⁴ = 2×10⁻⁴ s → f = 1/(2×10⁻⁴) = 5000 Hz = 5 kHz.

  Peak-peak triangle amplitude = 2βV_sat (if V_sat = ±12V and β=0.5 → ±6V, Vpp=12V).

Waveform (ASCII)

Vschmitt (square): +Vsat ──┐ ┌────

│ │

─┘ └────

time →

Vtriangle: /\ /\ /\

/ \ / \ / \

/ \ / \ / \

__/ \/ \/ \__

time →

2. Active Filter — definition, differences from passive, and example with neat circuit

Definition

An active filter is a frequency selective network that uses active components (typically op-
amps) together with resistors and capacitors to implement filtering (low-pass, high-pass,
band-pass, band-stop). Active filters can provide gain, buffering, impedance transformation,
and precise Q control without using inductors.

Differences: Active vs Passive filters

Property Active Filter Passive Filter

Components Op-amps + R + C (no inductors required) R, L, C only

Cannot provide gain (only

Gain Can provide voltage gain attenuation)

Can provide high input impedance and low Source and load interact
Impedance output impedance (buffering) (loading effects)

Frequency Good for low-to-mid frequencies (op-amp LC passive filters work well at
Property Active Filter Passive Filter

range limited) RF/high frequencies

Inductors can be bulky at low

Size No large inductors → smaller at low freq freq

Complexity & Q depends on L and C; limited

tuning Easy Q tuning (feedback/gain) flexibility

Example active filter: Sallen–Key 2nd-order low-pass (commonly used)

Circuit diagram (ASCII)

Vin ---R1----+----R2----+----> to op-amp non-inverting input

| |

C1 C2

| |

GND GND

Op-amp: configured as non-inverting buffer or with gain K

Output fed back (directly for unity gain buffer) to the lower node of R2-C2 network (classical
Sallen–Key)

More compact ASCII (classic):

Vin --- R1 ---+--- R2 ---+---(+ of opamp)

| |

C1 C2

| |

GND GND

Op-amp provides buffer / gain; Vout fed back to R2-C2 node.

Transfer function (unity-gain buffer case)

 ���� 1
�(�) = = .
��� 2 �1�1 + �1 �2 + �2 �2
� �1 �2�1 �2 + �( )+1
�1 �2 �1 �2

For equal R and C (R1=R2=R, C1=C2=C):

1
 Natural frequency �0 = ��.
1
 Quality factor � = 3−� if the op-amp stage has gain �. For unity buffer (K = 1), Q =
1/2? (note: common texts state Q = 1/3 for unity gain depending on topology
specifics — conventions differ). For Butterworth (Q = 0.707) choose K ≈ 1.586 (see Q
design below).

Example: design Butterworth (see Q8 for second-order Butterworth specifics).

Advantages of Sallen–Key:

 Simple, no inductors.

 Easy to set cutoff frequency and Q by choosing component ratios.

 Good for audio and low-frequency anti-aliasing.

3. Explain in brief any two (I’ll cover (a) CMOS Multiplexer and (b) Positive & Negative IC
Voltage Regulators) — detailed

(a) CMOS Multiplexer

Function and structure

A multiplexer (MUX) selects one of N input signals and routes it to a single output line under
control of select lines. A CMOS MUX is implemented using MOSFET transmission gates or
CMOS logic gates.

A 2-to-1 CMOS MUX using transmission gates:

 Two transmission gates (TG1, TG2). Each TG is a parallel NMOS + PMOS with
complementary control signals.

 Select S controls NMOS gate, � controls PMOS gate — ensures good conduction for
both high and low voltages.

 When TG1 ON and TG2 OFF → output = A; when TG2 ON and TG1 OFF → output = B.

Transmission gate advantages

 NMOS alone passes strong ‘0’ but weak ‘1’. PMOS passes strong ‘1’ but weak ‘0’.
Using both avoids level loss → rail-to-rail pass.
  Low on-resistance (R_on) when ON; high isolation when OFF.

Design notes & caveats

 Watch body/substrate diodes: on IC, PMOS body often tied to +V, NMOS body to
GND; ensure no forward bias when passing analog signals outside rails.

 If used for analog MUX (e.g., ADC channel selection) use transmission gates; for pure
digital MUX logic gates can be used.

Applications

 Channel selection for ADCs

 Bus multiplexing in microprocessors

 Data selectors in digital circuits

 Signal routing in mixed-signal ICs

(b) Positive and Negative IC Voltage Regulators

Purpose

Voltage regulators provide fixed or adjustable, stable DC voltages regardless of supply or

load changes. IC regulators (78xx/79xx families) are widely used for positive and negative
regulated supplies.

78xx (positive) family

 Example: 7805 outputs +5 V, 7812 outputs +12 V.

 Simple three-terminal device: Input, Ground, Output.

 Internal blocks: series pass transistor, reference, error amplifier, current limiting,
thermal shutdown.

 Requires input at least V_out + V_drop (dropout voltage, typically ≈2 V for older
regulators).

 Add small input and output bypass capacitors (e.g., 0.33 μF input, 0.1 μF output) for
stability against oscillations.

79xx (negative) family

 Example: 7905 → −5 V, 7912 → −12 V.

 Pinout differs: works with negative input voltages to produce negative outputs.

 Also includes overload protection and thermal shutdown.

LDO (Low DropOut) regulators

 LDOs have low dropout voltage (e.g., 0.2–0.5 V) using a P-channel MOSFET pass
element or special topologies. Useful when input voltage is only slightly above
desired output.

Switching regulators (brief contrast)

 For high efficiency and large voltage drops, switching regulators (buck, boost) are
used. They are efficient but more complex (inductors, switching noise).

Applications

 Power supplies for microcontrollers, op-amps, sensors.

 Provide dual supplies for analog circuits: +V and −V rails.

 Reference voltages for ADCs/DACs.

4. Short note (choose one) — Differential amplifier using an Op-amp

Differential amplifier (op-amp implementation)

Purpose

Amplify the difference between two input voltages while rejecting common-mode signals
(signals common to both inputs). Widely used in instrumentation (strain gauges, bridge
sensors), audio, and communication front-ends.

Circuit (classic 4-resistor differential amplifier)

V1 --- R1 ---+---(-) OpAmp (+)--- R1'--- V2

| |

R2 R2

| |

Vout GND

(standard resistor notation: non-inverting and inverting networks arranged so that Vo =

(R2/R1) (V2 − V1) when R2/R1 = R4/R3 etc.)

Better layout (classic form):

V1 -- R1 --+--(-) OpAmp

| \

R2 \
 | Vo

GND /

V2 -- R3 --+--(+) OpAmp

R4

GND

But the canonical differential amplifier using one op-amp:

 Resistances chosen so that �1 = �3 and �2 = �4, then

�2
�� = ( )(�2 − �1 ).
�1

Key parameter: Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

��
CMRR =
���

 ��: differential gain

 ���: common-mode gain

High CMRR → good rejection of interference/noise present on both inputs.

Uses

 Instrumentation amplifiers (often built with 3 op-amps for high CMRR and adjustable
gain)

 Sensor front-ends where small differential signal superimposed on large common

offset must be measured.

5. Operational Amplifier: (a) Frequency Response curve, (b) Stability and compensation
techniques

(a) Frequency Response curve (open-loop)

Typical Bode behavior

 Low frequency: Large DC open-loop gain �0 (e.g., 10⁵ to 10⁶).

  Single dominant pole: After the dominant pole �� the magnitude falls at −20
dB/decade; this is often intentionally placed by internal compensation (dominant-
pole compensation).

 Gain-bandwidth product (GBW): ��� = �0 × �� . For a given closed-loop gain ��� ,

closed-loop bandwidth ≈ ���/��� .

 Phase: Phase lags with frequency due to poles; at each pole ∼−90° additional lag.
Multiple poles reduce phase margin.

Graphical elements (Bode)

 Magnitude plot: high flat gain at low freq then −20 dB/decade (first pole), then
additional −20 dB/decade per added pole.

 Phase plot: ~0° at low freq, then −90° after first pole, more negative as more poles
appear.

Closed-loop implications

 Closed-loop stability determined by loop gain �(��) = �(��)�(��).

 Phase margin (PM): difference between loop phase and −180° at frequency where
|L|=1. Typical design target PM = 45°–60° for good transient response (no excessive
overshoot).

 Gain margin (GM): amount of gain increase required to make loop unstable (|L|=1 at
−180°).

(b) Stability and compensation techniques

Why instability occurs

 High open-loop gain + feedback → if loop phase shift reaches −180° at a frequency
where loop gain ≥ 1, Barkhausen conditions satisfied → oscillation.

 Internal poles cause phase lag; compensation shapes the open-loop response to
provide adequate phase margin.

Common compensation techniques

1. Dominant-pole (Miller) compensation

 Add a large internal compensation capacitor between high-gain nodes (Miller

capacitor).

 Creates a dominant pole at low frequency making other poles relatively

higher → increases phase margin.
  Most general-purpose op-amps are internally Miller-compensated (e.g., 741,
TL081 variants).

2. Lead compensation

 Add a network that provides phase lead near crossover (a zero).

 Implemented with series RC in feedback or a small capacitor in series with a

resistor.

 Increases phase margin and improves transient response.

3. Lag compensation

 Adds phase lag at low frequencies but improves steady-state gain and
reduces sensitivity; not common alone for op-amps but used in control loops.

4. Feedforward / notch compensation

 Add paths that reduce the effect of certain poles or insert zeros to cancel
unwanted poles. Useful in multi-stage amplifiers.

5. Pole splitting

 Alter loading or compensation so that a pole moves lower (dominant) and

others move higher — used in amplifier design.

6. Practical board-level measures

 Small bypass capacitors close to op-amp supply pins to avoid supply noise-
induced oscillations.

 Avoid large capacitive loads on outputs — use output resistor or buffer.

 Use compensation networks (small cap across feedback resistor for integrator)
to limit high-frequency gain.

Stability design targets

 Aim for phase margin ≥45° (≈50–60° preferred) for second-order-like response
(damping factor ζ ≈ 0.7 → desirable transient behavior).

 Check step response and Bode plots in simulation (SPICE) for final verification.

6. PLL — block diagram and explanation of blocks

Block diagram (ASCII)

Reference (Vin) ---> [ Phase Detector ] ---+---[ Loop Filter ]---+--> [ VCO ] --> Vout
 ^ | |

| | |

+<--- Divider <------+<---- Feedback -----+

(optional)

More linear layout:

Ref In --> [Phase Detector] --> [Loop Filter] --> [VCO] --> Out

^ |

|----------------------------------+

(feedback: divider optionally inserted)

Main blocks and functions

1. Phase Detector (PD)

 Compares phases of reference (φ_ref) and feedback (φ_vco).

 Outputs a signal proportional to phase difference (analog multiplier, XOR,

edge-type PFD).

 Types: analog multiplier PD (gives sine output), digital PFD (pulse) with large
linear range.

2. Loop Filter

 Filters PD output to remove high-frequency components (e.g., the double-

frequency component from multiplier) and produce a smooth control voltage.

 Determines dynamic response (bandwidth, damping).

 Simple: single pole (first order) low pass; typical: PI filter (lead-lag) to create
second-order behavior and zero steady-state phase error for steps.

3. Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

 Output frequency ���� = ����� + ���� ����� (rad/s).

 K_vco (Hz/V or rad/s/V) defines sensitivity.

 VCO usually implemented as LC or RC oscillator or DCO in digital PLLs.

4. Feedback Divider (optional)

 For frequency synthesis, a divider (N) in feedback creates frequency

multiplication: Vout = N × F_ref when locked.
  Combined with PD and loop filter creates fractional or integer-N frequency
synthesizers.

5. Overall loop

 PD → filter → VCO → feedback. The loop adjusts VCO control voltage until
φ_ref − φ_vco = small steady error yielding frequency lock.

7. Phase locking in a First-order PLL (explain how lock is achieved)

First-order (Type I) PLL

 Simplest PLL: Phase Detector → ideal low-pass filter (proportional gain) → VCO.

 No integrator in loop filter → this is Type I (one integrator in open-loop via VCO’s 1/s
behavior).

Linearized small-signal model (Laplace)

 Let K_pd = PD gain (V/rad). Let K_vco = VCO sensitivity (rad/s/V). Let H(s) = Loop filter
transfer (for first-order simple proportional filter = K_f (constant)).
����� ����
 Open-loop transfer: �(�) = �
.

 Note 1/s arises because VCO integrates control voltage to phase (phase = ∫
frequency dt).

 Closed-loop error transfer function (phase):

�� (�) �� (�) ��� (�)
Φ� (�) = = = ,
1 + �(�) 1 + � �+�
�

where � = ��� �� ���� .

Locking behavior

 If reference frequency/phase changes slowly (within loop bandwidth), the loop

adjusts VCO so that steady-state error is small.

 For a step in reference phase, the transient is first order with time constant τ = 1/K.
The VCO control voltage moves to change VCO frequency until phase difference is
constant and frequency matched.

 Steady-state for frequency step Δωref: there can be a steady phase error such that
PD produces DC error V_ctrl making VCO frequency shift equal to Δωref. For a first-
order PLL, steady-state frequency error can be zero but phase error may be non-zero
for certain PD types.
Lock range, capture range (brief)

 Lock range: frequency range over which once locked the loop remains locked (usually
≈ K_pd·K_vco times some factor).

 Capture range: frequency range over which the PLL can acquire lock from an
arbitrary unlocked state — typically ≤ lock range and depends strongly on loop filter.

Intuition

 The loop works like a feedback regulator: PD measures error, filter smooths, VCO acts
to reduce error. Convergence is exponential (first order) with time constant
determined by open-loop gain K.

8. Second-order low-pass Butterworth filter — circuit diagram and working

Butterworth characteristic

 Butterworth second-order: maximally flat magnitude in passband (no ripple), with Q

= 1/√2 ≈ 0.7071 for second order.

Realization: Sallen–Key 2nd-order low-pass (non-inverting)

Circuit (ASCII)

Vin --- R1 ---+--- node A --- R2 ---+--- to op-amp non-inverting input (+)

| |

C1 C2

| |

GND GND

Op-amp in non-inverting config with gain K (for Butterworth choose K ≈ 1.586).

Output Vout is op-amp output; output is fed back in the SK topology to node A as usual.

(See standard Sallen–Key schematic: two resistors and two capacitors form a 2nd order RC
network feeding a non-inverting amplifier.)

Transfer function (general)

For Sallen–Key topology (non-inverting):

 �
�(�) =
� � + �1 �2 + �2�2 − ��1 �2
�2 �1 �2 �1 �2 + �( 1 1 )+1
�1 �2 �1�2

For unity K and equal components this simplifies; exact form depends on chosen definitions.

Butterworth design (practical)

For equal components and Sallen-Key with non-unity gain K, Q is:

1
�= (for particular equal-component assumptions)
3−�

1
To get � = 2
≈ 0.7071,

1
�=3− ≈ 3 − 1.4142 = 1.5858.
�

Cutoff frequency:
1
�0 = .
2� �1 �2 �1�2

If choose R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C:
1
�0 = .
2���

Example design

Design target: f0 = 1 kHz. Choose C = 10 nF.

1 1
�= = ≈ 15.915 kΩ.
2��0 � 2� × 1000 × 10 × 10−9

Use standard value R = 16 kΩ. Set op-amp non-inverting gain K ≈ 1.586. For non-inverting
amplifier:
�� ��
�=1+ ⟹ = � − 1 = 0.5858.
�� ��

Take R_g = 10 kΩ → R_f ≈ 5.858 kΩ ≈ standard value 5.9 kΩ (or use 5.6k + 270Ω series to
approximate).
Working (qualitative)

 At low frequencies (ω << ω0) capacitors look open → network passes input to op-
amp → unity (or K) gain in passband (maximally flat for Butterworth).

 Near ω0 the magnitude starts to roll off; Q = 0.707 gives critically damped response
(no ripple, moderate transient peaking).

 For ω >> ω0 reactive impedances dominate → large attenuation with −40 dB/decade
slope (second order).

Practical considerations

 Use op-amp with unity-gain bandwidth sufficiently > desired cutoff × ~10 to avoid
phase and amplitude error.

 Bypass supply rails close to op-amp pins.

 Use matched components or trimmers for accurate fc and Q.

 Avoid driving heavy capacitive loads directly at output.

Final notes — exam tips & succinct formula sheet

 Square oscillator (Schmitt + RC):

1+�
� = 2��ln ⁣( )
1−�

where � = ��� /���� .

 Schmitt→Integrator triangular oscillator:

1
� = 4���, � = .
4���

 Sallen–Key Butterworth:
1
� ≈ 1.5858 (��� � = 1/ 2), �0 = (�1 = �2 = �, �1 = �2 = �).
2���

 PLL small-signal:
����� ����
Open-loop �(�) = �
. Time-constant for first-order ≈ 1/�.

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