***

## I. Introduction to Heat

In physics, heat is a form of energy that transfers from one body to another because of a
temperature difference between them.[1][6][8]
Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter object to a colder object until both reach the same
temperature, a condition called thermal equilibrium.[5][8][1]

Heat is not a substance stored inside an object; instead, it is energy in transit between systems
or bodies.[6][1]
The energy associated with the microscopic motion and interactions of particles inside a body is
called internal energy, and heat is one way internal energy can change.[4][1]

***

## II. Heat, Temperature, and Internal Energy

Temperature measures how hot or cold something is and is related to the average kinetic
energy of its particles.[3][5]
Heat, in contrast, refers specifically to the energy transferred between bodies because they are
at different temperatures.[1][3][5]

Internal energy is the total microscopic energy (kinetic and potential) of all particles in a system.
[4][1]
When heat flows into or out of a system, its internal energy may increase or decrease, often
changing its temperature or causing a change of state.[2][1][4]

***

## III. Units of Heat and Temperature

In the SI system, heat (as energy) is measured in joules.[5][4]

Historically, heat was also measured in calories, where one calorie is the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius, and one calorie
equals a specific number of joules.[8][9]

Temperature is commonly measured in degrees Celsius, Kelvin, or Fahrenheit, with Kelvin

being the SI unit.[3][5]
The Kelvin scale starts at absolute zero, the temperature at which the average kinetic energy of
particles is minimal.[3][5]

***
## IV. Modes of Heat Transfer

There are three main mechanisms by which heat is transferred: conduction, convection, and
radiation.[8][1][4]
All real-world heat flow processes involve one or more of these modes, sometimes acting
together.[4][8]

### 1. Conduction

Conduction is heat transfer through direct contact between particles, without bulk movement of
the material.[1][8]
In solids, especially metals, conduction occurs when higher-energy particles transfer energy to
neighboring lower-energy particles through collisions or vibrations.[5][1]

Good conductors, like metals, transfer heat quickly, while insulators, like wood or plastic,
transfer heat slowly.[8][1]
Applications include cooking utensils, heat sinks in electronics, and thermal insulation in
buildings.[4][8]

### 2. Convection

Convection is heat transfer through the motion of fluids (liquids or gases).[8][4]

When a fluid is heated, it often becomes less dense and rises, while cooler, denser fluid sinks,
creating convection currents that carry energy.[4][8]

Natural convection occurs due to density differences, while forced convection involves fans or
pumps moving the fluid.[8][4]
Everyday examples include boiling water, atmospheric circulation, and room heating with
radiators.[4][8]

### 3. Radiation

Thermal radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves, often in the infrared range, and
does not require a medium.[1][8][4]
Even in a vacuum, bodies can emit and absorb radiant energy, which is why the Earth receives
energy from the Sun through space.[8][4]

All objects above absolute zero emit some thermal radiation, with hotter objects emitting more
energy and shorter-wavelength radiation.[4][8]
Dark, matte surfaces tend to be better absorbers and emitters of radiation than bright, shiny
surfaces.[8][4]

***
## V. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by a given
amount.[5][1]
Specific heat capacity is the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass (for example,
one kilogram) of a substance by one degree in temperature.[3][1][5]

Substances with high specific heat, such as water, need more energy to change temperature,
so they warm and cool slowly.[1][5]
Materials with low specific heat change temperature more quickly for the same heat input, which
affects how they are used in cooking, building, and engineering.[9][1]

The heat absorbed or released by a substance when its temperature changes (without phase
change) can be found using relationships that include mass, specific heat, and temperature
change.[7][5]
This idea is widely used in calorimetry, where heat transfer is measured to determine specific
heats or reaction energies.[7][5]

***

## VI. Phase Changes and Latent Heat

When a substance changes state, such as from solid to liquid or liquid to gas, heat can be
absorbed or released without a change in temperature during the transformation.[2][9][5]
The energy involved in changing phase at constant temperature is called latent heat and
depends on the substance and the type of phase change.[2][5]

Latent heat of fusion refers to melting or freezing, while latent heat of vaporization refers to
boiling or condensing.[2][5]
Phase changes play important roles in everyday phenomena such as sweating, refrigeration,
and weather patterns.[2][4]

***

## VII. Thermodynamics and the Laws of Heat

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies heat, work, temperature, and their
relationships to energy.[2][4]
It describes how heat can be converted into work and how energy transformations are
constrained by fundamental laws.[2][4]
The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of a system equals the
heat added to the system minus the work done by the system, expressing conservation of
energy.[7][3][2]
This law means energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed
between heat, work, and internal energy.[2][4]

The second law of thermodynamics introduces the concept of entropy and states that heat does
not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter one without external work.[3][4]
It sets the direction of natural processes and explains why some energy transformations are
irreversible.[3][4]

***

## VIII. Everyday Applications of Heat

Understanding heat is essential for designing engines, refrigerators, air conditioners, and power
plants.[4][2]
Heat engines transform heat into mechanical work, while refrigerators and heat pumps move
heat from colder regions to warmer ones using external work.[2][4]

In construction, knowledge of heat transfer helps in choosing insulation and materials to keep
buildings comfortable and energy-efficient.[8][4]
In climate and environmental science, heat transfer through the atmosphere, oceans, and land
shapes weather, climate patterns, and energy balance.[4][8]

***

來源
[1] Heat in Thermodynamics | Definition
https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/thermodynamics/laws-of-thermodynamics/
first-law-of-thermodynamics/heat-in-thermodynamics/
[2] Thermodynamics Laws https://byjus.com/physics/thermodynamics/
[3] Heat | Definition, Thermodynamics & Examples - Lesson
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-heat-definition-lesson-quiz.html
[4] Thermodynamics | Laws, Definition, & Equations
https://www.britannica.com/science/thermodynamics
[5] Heat and temperature (article) | Khan Academy
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/thermodynamics-chemistry/internal-energy-
sal/a/heat
[6] Heat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat
[7] Basics of Thermodynamics
https://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/system/files/file_attachments/basic_thermo.pdf
[8] Heat | Definition & Facts https://www.britannica.com/science/heat
[9] heat-and-thermodynamics-iit-jee-notes https://byjus.com/jee/heat-and-thermodynamics-iit-
jee-notes/
[10] Thermodynamics: What do HEAT and WORK really mean? | Basics of Thermodynamics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bM4ykIumlss

***

## I. Introduction to Heat

In physics, heat is a form of energy that transfers from one body to another because of a
temperature difference between them.[1][6][8]
Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter object to a colder object until both reach the same
temperature, a condition called thermal equilibrium.[5][8][1]

Heat is not a substance stored inside an object; instead, it is energy in transit between systems
or bodies.[6][1]
The energy associated with the microscopic motion and interactions of particles inside a body is
called internal energy, and heat is one way internal energy can change.[4][1]

***

## II. Heat, Temperature, and Internal Energy

Temperature measures how hot or cold something is and is related to the average kinetic
energy of its particles.[3][5]
Heat, in contrast, refers specifically to the energy transferred between bodies because they are
at different temperatures.[1][3][5]

Internal energy is the total microscopic energy (kinetic and potential) of all particles in a system.
[4][1]
When heat flows into or out of a system, its internal energy may increase or decrease, often
changing its temperature or causing a change of state.[2][1][4]

***

## III. Units of Heat and Temperature

In the SI system, heat (as energy) is measured in joules.[5][4]

Historically, heat was also measured in calories, where one calorie is the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius, and one calorie
equals a specific number of joules.[8][9]
Temperature is commonly measured in degrees Celsius, Kelvin, or Fahrenheit, with Kelvin
being the SI unit.[3][5]
The Kelvin scale starts at absolute zero, the temperature at which the average kinetic energy of
particles is minimal.[3][5]

***

## IV. Modes of Heat Transfer

There are three main mechanisms by which heat is transferred: conduction, convection, and
radiation.[8][1][4]
All real-world heat flow processes involve one or more of these modes, sometimes acting
together.[4][8]

### 1. Conduction

Conduction is heat transfer through direct contact between particles, without bulk movement of
the material.[1][8]
In solids, especially metals, conduction occurs when higher-energy particles transfer energy to
neighboring lower-energy particles through collisions or vibrations.[5][1]

Good conductors, like metals, transfer heat quickly, while insulators, like wood or plastic,
transfer heat slowly.[8][1]
Applications include cooking utensils, heat sinks in electronics, and thermal insulation in
buildings.[4][8]

### 2. Convection

Convection is heat transfer through the motion of fluids (liquids or gases).[8][4]

When a fluid is heated, it often becomes less dense and rises, while cooler, denser fluid sinks,
creating convection currents that carry energy.[4][8]

Natural convection occurs due to density differences, while forced convection involves fans or
pumps moving the fluid.[8][4]
Everyday examples include boiling water, atmospheric circulation, and room heating with
radiators.[4][8]

### 3. Radiation

Thermal radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves, often in the infrared range, and
does not require a medium.[1][8][4]
Even in a vacuum, bodies can emit and absorb radiant energy, which is why the Earth receives
energy from the Sun through space.[8][4]
All objects above absolute zero emit some thermal radiation, with hotter objects emitting more
energy and shorter-wavelength radiation.[4][8]
Dark, matte surfaces tend to be better absorbers and emitters of radiation than bright, shiny
surfaces.[8][4]

***

## V. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by a given
amount.[5][1]
Specific heat capacity is the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass (for example,
one kilogram) of a substance by one degree in temperature.[3][1][5]

Substances with high specific heat, such as water, need more energy to change temperature,
so they warm and cool slowly.[1][5]
Materials with low specific heat change temperature more quickly for the same heat input, which
affects how they are used in cooking, building, and engineering.[9][1]

The heat absorbed or released by a substance when its temperature changes (without phase
change) can be found using relationships that include mass, specific heat, and temperature
change.[7][5]
This idea is widely used in calorimetry, where heat transfer is measured to determine specific
heats or reaction energies.[7][5]

***

## VI. Phase Changes and Latent Heat

When a substance changes state, such as from solid to liquid or liquid to gas, heat can be
absorbed or released without a change in temperature during the transformation.[2][9][5]
The energy involved in changing phase at constant temperature is called latent heat and
depends on the substance and the type of phase change.[2][5]

Latent heat of fusion refers to melting or freezing, while latent heat of vaporization refers to
boiling or condensing.[2][5]
Phase changes play important roles in everyday phenomena such as sweating, refrigeration,
and weather patterns.[2][4]

***

## VII. Thermodynamics and the Laws of Heat

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies heat, work, temperature, and their
relationships to energy.[2][4]
It describes how heat can be converted into work and how energy transformations are
constrained by fundamental laws.[2][4]

The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of a system equals the
heat added to the system minus the work done by the system, expressing conservation of
energy.[7][3][2]
This law means energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed
between heat, work, and internal energy.[2][4]

The second law of thermodynamics introduces the concept of entropy and states that heat does
not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter one without external work.[3][4]
It sets the direction of natural processes and explains why some energy transformations are
irreversible.[3][4]

***

## VIII. Everyday Applications of Heat

Understanding heat is essential for designing engines, refrigerators, air conditioners, and power
plants.[4][2]
Heat engines transform heat into mechanical work, while refrigerators and heat pumps move
heat from colder regions to warmer ones using external work.[2][4]

In construction, knowledge of heat transfer helps in choosing insulation and materials to keep
buildings comfortable and energy-efficient.[8][4]
In climate and environmental science, heat transfer through the atmosphere, oceans, and land
shapes weather, climate patterns, and energy balance.[4][8]

***

來源
[1] Heat in Thermodynamics | Definition
https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/thermodynamics/laws-of-thermodynamics/
first-law-of-thermodynamics/heat-in-thermodynamics/
[2] Thermodynamics Laws https://byjus.com/physics/thermodynamics/
[3] Heat | Definition, Thermodynamics & Examples - Lesson
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-heat-definition-lesson-quiz.html
[4] Thermodynamics | Laws, Definition, & Equations
https://www.britannica.com/science/thermodynamics
[5] Heat and temperature (article) | Khan Academy
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/thermodynamics-chemistry/internal-energy-
sal/a/heat
[6] Heat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat
[7] Basics of Thermodynamics
https://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/system/files/file_attachments/basic_thermo.pdf
[8] Heat | Definition & Facts https://www.britannica.com/science/heat
[9] heat-and-thermodynamics-iit-jee-notes https://byjus.com/jee/heat-and-thermodynamics-iit-
jee-notes/
[10] Thermodynamics: What do HEAT and WORK really mean? | Basics of Thermodynamics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bM4ykIumlss

***

## I. Introduction to Heat

In physics, heat is a form of energy that transfers from one body to another because of a
temperature difference between them.[1][6][8]
Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter object to a colder object until both reach the same
temperature, a condition called thermal equilibrium.[5][8][1]

Heat is not a substance stored inside an object; instead, it is energy in transit between systems
or bodies.[6][1]
The energy associated with the microscopic motion and interactions of particles inside a body is
called internal energy, and heat is one way internal energy can change.[4][1]

***

## II. Heat, Temperature, and Internal Energy

Temperature measures how hot or cold something is and is related to the average kinetic
energy of its particles.[3][5]
Heat, in contrast, refers specifically to the energy transferred between bodies because they are
at different temperatures.[1][3][5]

Internal energy is the total microscopic energy (kinetic and potential) of all particles in a system.
[4][1]
When heat flows into or out of a system, its internal energy may increase or decrease, often
changing its temperature or causing a change of state.[2][1][4]

***
## III. Units of Heat and Temperature

In the SI system, heat (as energy) is measured in joules.[5][4]

Historically, heat was also measured in calories, where one calorie is the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius, and one calorie
equals a specific number of joules.[8][9]

Temperature is commonly measured in degrees Celsius, Kelvin, or Fahrenheit, with Kelvin

being the SI unit.[3][5]
The Kelvin scale starts at absolute zero, the temperature at which the average kinetic energy of
particles is minimal.[3][5]

***

## IV. Modes of Heat Transfer

There are three main mechanisms by which heat is transferred: conduction, convection, and
radiation.[8][1][4]
All real-world heat flow processes involve one or more of these modes, sometimes acting
together.[4][8]

### 1. Conduction

Conduction is heat transfer through direct contact between particles, without bulk movement of
the material.[1][8]
In solids, especially metals, conduction occurs when higher-energy particles transfer energy to
neighboring lower-energy particles through collisions or vibrations.[5][1]

Good conductors, like metals, transfer heat quickly, while insulators, like wood or plastic,
transfer heat slowly.[8][1]
Applications include cooking utensils, heat sinks in electronics, and thermal insulation in
buildings.[4][8]

### 2. Convection

Convection is heat transfer through the motion of fluids (liquids or gases).[8][4]

When a fluid is heated, it often becomes less dense and rises, while cooler, denser fluid sinks,
creating convection currents that carry energy.[4][8]

Natural convection occurs due to density differences, while forced convection involves fans or
pumps moving the fluid.[8][4]
Everyday examples include boiling water, atmospheric circulation, and room heating with
radiators.[4][8]
### 3. Radiation

Thermal radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves, often in the infrared range, and
does not require a medium.[1][8][4]
Even in a vacuum, bodies can emit and absorb radiant energy, which is why the Earth receives
energy from the Sun through space.[8][4]

All objects above absolute zero emit some thermal radiation, with hotter objects emitting more
energy and shorter-wavelength radiation.[4][8]
Dark, matte surfaces tend to be better absorbers and emitters of radiation than bright, shiny
surfaces.[8][4]

***

## V. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by a given
amount.[5][1]
Specific heat capacity is the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass (for example,
one kilogram) of a substance by one degree in temperature.[3][1][5]

Substances with high specific heat, such as water, need more energy to change temperature,
so they warm and cool slowly.[1][5]
Materials with low specific heat change temperature more quickly for the same heat input, which
affects how they are used in cooking, building, and engineering.[9][1]

The heat absorbed or released by a substance when its temperature changes (without phase
change) can be found using relationships that include mass, specific heat, and temperature
change.[7][5]
This idea is widely used in calorimetry, where heat transfer is measured to determine specific
heats or reaction energies.[7][5]

***

## VI. Phase Changes and Latent Heat

When a substance changes state, such as from solid to liquid or liquid to gas, heat can be
absorbed or released without a change in temperature during the transformation.[2][9][5]
The energy involved in changing phase at constant temperature is called latent heat and
depends on the substance and the type of phase change.[2][5]

Latent heat of fusion refers to melting or freezing, while latent heat of vaporization refers to
boiling or condensing.[2][5]
Phase changes play important roles in everyday phenomena such as sweating, refrigeration,
and weather patterns.[2][4]

***

## VII. Thermodynamics and the Laws of Heat

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies heat, work, temperature, and their
relationships to energy.[2][4]
It describes how heat can be converted into work and how energy transformations are
constrained by fundamental laws.[2][4]

The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of a system equals the
heat added to the system minus the work done by the system, expressing conservation of
energy.[7][3][2]
This law means energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed
between heat, work, and internal energy.[2][4]

The second law of thermodynamics introduces the concept of entropy and states that heat does
not spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter one without external work.[3][4]
It sets the direction of natural processes and explains why some energy transformations are
irreversible.[3][4]

***

## VIII. Everyday Applications of Heat

Understanding heat is essential for designing engines, refrigerators, air conditioners, and power
plants.[4][2]
Heat engines transform heat into mechanical work, while refrigerators and heat pumps move
heat from colder regions to warmer ones using external work.[2][4]

In construction, knowledge of heat transfer helps in choosing insulation and materials to keep
buildings comfortable and energy-efficient.[8][4]
In climate and environmental science, heat transfer through the atmosphere, oceans, and land
shapes weather, climate patterns, and energy balance.[4][8]

***

來源
[1] Heat in Thermodynamics | Definition
https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/thermodynamics/laws-of-thermodynamics/
first-law-of-thermodynamics/heat-in-thermodynamics/
[2] Thermodynamics Laws https://byjus.com/physics/thermodynamics/
[3] Heat | Definition, Thermodynamics & Examples - Lesson
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-heat-definition-lesson-quiz.html
[4] Thermodynamics | Laws, Definition, & Equations
https://www.britannica.com/science/thermodynamics
[5] Heat and temperature (article) | Khan Academy
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/thermodynamics-chemistry/internal-energy-
sal/a/heat
[6] Heat - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat
[7] Basics of Thermodynamics
https://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/system/files/file_attachments/basic_thermo.pdf
[8] Heat | Definition & Facts https://www.britannica.com/science/heat
[9] heat-and-thermodynamics-iit-jee-notes https://byjus.com/jee/heat-and-thermodynamics-iit-
jee-notes/
[10] Thermodynamics: What do HEAT and WORK really mean? | Basics of Thermodynamics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bM4ykIumlss