CHAPTER

Resolution Training
of Problems
Liliana Seger Jacob

Este capítulo tem por finalidade descrever o Treino de

Problem Solving and explaining its possible application
in various clinical areas.
The empirical study of the construct of resolution of pro-
problems have a long history, however, recently, the
mental health professionals have focused on this technique
as a way to cope with the disorders
emotional issues.
For an individual to cope effectively with a
difficulty, he needs to learn to evaluate and find
solutions that allow you to solve your problem. Consi-
an effective response, a response or a pattern
of responses that changes the situation, which ceases to be pro-
problematic and, at the same time, produces the maximum of others
positive consequences and the minimum of negatives.
D'Zurilla and Goldfried (1971) published an article that
outlined a prescriptive model to train individuals
in problem-solving skills as a means
to enhance your overall social competence.
Before defining the solution behavior of pro-
problems, it seems important to define the "problem" in situations-
problem-solving actions. According to Skinner (1953), in
true problem situation, the organism does not have the com-
available support that will reduce deprivation or provide-
a situation of aversive reinforcement. Problematic situations
occur throughout the individual's life. One must let
clarifies the distinction between 'issuing a response that is a solution'
to solve a problem.
 Problem Solving Training■ 345

Problem solving is a behavior that, through manipulation

of variables makes the emergence of the solution more likely. Problem-solving
refers to the process of finding a solution.
The solution, on the other hand, is defined as the answer or the pattern of response
results that alter the situation in order to eliminate or reduce its nature
problematic.
The "difficulty" of a problematic situation for an individual is to provide
to the availability in the repertoire of a response that constitutes a solution.
The smaller the individual's repertoire, the greater the problematic situation will be.
It also becomes necessary to differentiate the behavior of problem solving.
problem and trial and error (open or hidden). In trial learning and
error, a high probability number of responses may be issued because the
The problematic situation contains elements similar to those of previous situations.
in which these answers were reinforced. If one of these answers was reinforced,
this is not problem-solving. The behavior was not applied to that
what made the situation more likely; the solution was found by chance. The attempt-
motivation and error with problem-solving behavior may have a connection,
like in the case of an individual who tried several possible answers (open and yes-
politically) until he finds the "best" answer for himself.
Skinner's orientation emphasized open behavior and manipulation.
of external variables. In this chapter, a broader definition of
behavior and focuses attention on cognitive operations or interactions with-
covert behavioral patterns, which may be involved in solving problems
more effective in life, but may not be representative of any
immediate open behavior.
Problem Solving Training (PST) is a technique that has been applied
as a treatment intervention for a variety of clinical disorders,
including depression (Hussian and Lawrence, 1981; Nezu, 1986), stress and an-
anxiety (Mendonça and Siess, 1976), agoraphobia (Jannoun Munby, Catalan and Gelder,
1980),suchasphobias,obesity(Black,1987;BlackandSherba,1983;BlackandThreefall,
1986), marital problems (Whisman and Jacobson, 1989), alcoholism, still-
division in choices, in periods of transition, to childhood and adolescent disorders.
science, at last, to numerous situations that require the individual to train their
skills for solving social and interpersonal problems.
Nezu and Nezu (1996) defined the solution to social problems as the process of
metacognitive through which individuals understand the nature of problems
more of life and direct their objectives towards the modification of the problematic character of
situation or even of your reactions to it.

necessary to prepare the individual for the TRP

It is emphasized that, like any technique, this one should be viewed outside of a
specific context or situation. The priority in any therapeutic process,
regardless of the intervention to be performed, it focuses on the relationship
established between the patient and the therapist.
346■ Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

When thinking about a problem, one has in mind the specific situations of
life, which require answers for proper functioning. Basically,
Problems represent a discrepancy between the reality of a situation and the
desired objectives.
A problem can be a unique event, a series of events
related topics or a chronic situation. The demands of the problematic situation
they can originate in the environment or within the person. Therefore, a problem
itself is neither a characteristic of the environment nor of the person. On the contrary, a

The suitability or effectiveness of any solution varies from person to person, from
place for place, as effectiveness depends on the values and goals of each one.
It should be emphasized that the evaluations of the process should focus on the skills
skills and abilities that allow individuals to solve problems of

mathematics can be used together.

METHOD
The problem-solving ability encompasses a range of skills
specific. There are five processes, each evaluating an aspect of the solution:

Orientation to the problem;

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3. Gathering alternatives;
Decision making;
5.Prática da solução e verificação.

The orientation component for problem (1) can be described as a

set of guiding responses that represent cognitive-affective reactions
immediate behavioral responses of a person when they face a situation-
problematicaction.Theseresponsesincludebeliefs,evaluations,andexpectations.
about the problems of life and about your ability to solve problems. Your
cognitions include: your past life story and its reinforcement related to
problem solving, what can help or produce a negative effect on the way
how the individual analyzes the problem.
The process (2), definition and formulation of the problem, consists of clarifying and
understand the specific nature of the problem. After defining and formulating it
 Problem Solving Training■ 347

the nature of the difficulty, clearly and concretely, it can be evaluated in a way
butitisnecessary.

The objective of process (3) is to create alternatives, ensuring that all

the possible solutions are available.
No (4), decision-making is assessed, judged, compared to the available options.
levels to be applied to the situation. Finally, the (5), practice of the solution and
verification consists of evaluating the effectiveness of the actions to control and resolve the
problem or the problematic situation.
Thesefivestepsarenotbasedonaclarificationofcognitivestrategies.
behaviors that can be used during the process, but represent
an established model of problem-solving, using a logical format
for the training.
Individuals can move between these five steps and often...
fearful, it is necessary to use complementary techniques between the steps, the
to enhance the abilities of the individual at each stage. For example, it can be
necessary to employ cognitive restructuring during the definition phase and
formulation of the problem, to minimize the cognitive distortions that hinder
the individual to define the problem precisely.
Therefore, this technique can be used in a structured format or in a way
broader and open, in a therapy format.
There are several aspects that deserve consideration. An individual may not
to be able to solve your problems simply because you lack the skills
necessary, simply needing to learn them or he may not be able to solve
problems caused by negative emotions, such as anxiety or depression, which
hinders or makes effective evaluation difficult. The role of the therapist takes on great

DESCRIPTION
In detailing each step, the therapist must always remember that the TRP is a pro-
flexible, spontaneous, natural. It should be emphasized the interrelation between the co-
speakers as the situation occurs.

Orientation for the Problem

Becoming properly oriented to deal with problematic situations
stressors (real or perceived) means developing a set of
attitudes to recognize and accept problematic situations when they occur
and inhibit the tendency to both respond impulsively and do nothing.

problematic actions, that this is the 'normal' state more than the 'abnormal' state
the client is instructed that he, when difficulties or uncertainties arise, could
immediately try to identify the situation or the external situations that produced
face these difficulties, instead of constantly reliving your own reactions
348■ Cognitive-behavioral therapy

or personal emotions. The patient is also encouraged to accept the fact that he
you have skills to solve problems, even when there is no solution
be apparent.

The main function of the inhibitory trend is the reduction of the tendency to react.
automatically respond to family stimuli in problematic situations
(inappropriately or disastrously) or passively avoiding the problem, 'doing-

If I stop and think, there may not be enough time for answers to occur.
cognitive to effective action.

Problem formulation

In this phase, categories of problematic situations are introduced for training.

activities (for example, studying, flirting, etc.). They can be prepared with
based on the individual experiences of the patient or made in advance to exemplify
simplify and train this phase.
Emgeral, it is suggested to start with a hierarchy that goes from the least difficult.
cylinder for the patient up to the very difficult categories.

In this phase, the next step is to formulate the target objectives: which aspects of the si-

the limits for the next phase are established, which is the formulation of alternatives.

The raising of alternatives

The search for alternatives is a creative and imaginative process as much as
um processo de recordação e revivência.A revivência de antigas soluções pode

good results. The patient needs to think of ways to combine parts of

usual responses differ in new actions.
The patient is instructed to produce associative responses. One way to
helping him avoid 'obstacles' is through the principle of 'postponement of judgment'
According to this principle, the patient tries to think of an alternative.
go after the other, without caring about matters like its value, its
acceptability or its suitability. Also avoiding thinking about consequences of
answers at this point as much as possible. By using this principle, it avoids
 Problem Solving Training■ 349

two traps: the premature termination of the search with one of the first 'good'
alternatives come to mind and the discouragement of premature termination of the search
the result of early ideas.
The more alternatives the patient formulates, the more likely the chances are.
to find better alternatives for the solution.
When the patient feels that they have exhausted their ideas, we move to the paraphrase of to-
decision making.

To the decision maker

This stage involves selecting the 'best' alternative for the action, being, pro-
probably, the most difficult phase of the strategy. This selection is based on the ex-
patient expectations, for example, the possible consequences of various
alternatives. The patient is instructed to anticipate the consequences of each al-

positive sequences and minimizing the negative ones.

It is clear that, for this analysis to take place, several factors interfere, such as your
past history, your knowledge of others' experiences and your beliefs, or
it is the way the patient interprets situations.
It is important to ask the patient to ask the following question: 'If I were...
to implement this particular solution, what are the various things that could be possible
"mind, happen as a result?" At this point, the patient is instructed to consi-
delve into the consequences in four different categories: personal, social, short-term
short term and long term.
In the personal category, the patient tries to evaluate each alternative regarding the needs.
datathatmeetspersonalgoalstobeachieved,withreferencetoobjectives
target,theproblematicsituationandtheeffectsgeneratedontheirfeelingsandemotions.
The associative consequences refer to the effects that the alternative action has on ...
for several "other significants" in the patient's life and the reactions of others to him.
The short-term consequences refer to the immediate personal effects and
social issues in the problematic situation. Anticipating the long-term consequences,
the patient considers the possible personal and social consequences that may
occur in the future.
When the patient evaluated the alternatives in these four categories, he is soli-
cited to consider the probability of occurrence of the various consequences.
Once again, all this evaluation depends on your particular history, obviously.
However, an effective solution for one patient may not be effective for another.
The patient then evaluates the consequences and selects what he sees.
with more chances of success, judging its possible alternatives. This
selection leads to the final phase, called the verification phase.

Verification
350■ Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Discussion
The described procedures can be used both in groups and individually.
individually. One of the advantages of group training is that it usually occurs
a greater sum of knowledge and information, providing a more
suitable for problem solving. Furthermore, the group can encourage a
more appropriate critical evaluation, as a result, will increase the effectiveness of the training
decision-making. Interpersonal relationships and social reinforcement
Consequences of the group can also facilitate the generalization of solution to pro-
problems for real life social situations.
One aspect that should be emphasized is that the goal of the TRP is not to teach.
specific answers or solutions for certain problematic situations, but
will teach general strategy or problem-solving approach, to be applied
in any social or personal problem.

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