Strategies regarding technologies applied
to improve the energetic and ecologic
parameters of automotive internal
combustion engines
1. Strategies regarding technologies applied
to improve the energetic and ecologic
parameters
of
automotive
internal
combustion engines
ENGINE
FUEL
1) CONVENTIONAL FUELS
- Gasoline
- Diesel fuel
2) ALTERNATIVE FUELS
- SI Engine
- CI engines
EMISSIONS
1) POLLUTANTS
- HC
- CO
- NOx
- PM
2) GREENHOUSE GASES
-CO2 ,N2O, CH4
EMISSIONS
HC pollution results when unburned or partially burned fuel
is emitted from the engine as exhaust and when fuel
evaporates directly into the atmosphere.
A component of most fuels, HCs also react with NOx in the
presence of sunlight to form ozone.
CO forms when the carbon in fuel isnt burned completely due
to a lack of oxygen.
Thats why high levels of CO generally occur at high altitude
where less oxygen is present to help with combustion.
NOx gases are formed when oxygen and nitrogen in the air
react with each other during combustion. The most abundant
pollutant, nitric oxide (NO) oxidizes in the atmosphere to form
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which can oxidize to form ozone or air
particles known as PM2.5.
The formation of NOx is most common when there are high
temperatures and excess oxygen. Because NOx is most
abundant when combustion temperatures are high, and HC
and CO are most abundant when temperatures are low, there
is a trade-off among these emissions. Engines are calibrated
to make the best of this trade-off.
Particulate matter (PM) is a pollutant emitted primarily by
diesel-fueled vehicles and poorly-maintained gasoline-powered
vehicles. PM is made up of small particles that contain a
variety of chemical components. Larger particles are visible as
smoke or dust and settle out relatively rapidly. Smaller
particles, such as PM2.5 can be suspended in the air for long
periods of time and inhaled into the lungs.
Another significant tailpipe emission is carbon dioxide (CO2).
CO2 is considered a greenhouse gas because it absorbs and
re-emits infrared radiation that heats the earths surfacea
process known as the greenhouse effect.
REGULATORY PROGRAM TIMING
Evolution of pollution standard
Euro 6 standard
Euro 6 is the first step towards the implementation of world
harmonized emission standards, encompassing Europe,
North America and Japan, and this will facilitate
coordination and development for future standards.
The Euro 6 levels are close to those applying in North
America (EPA10) and Japan (Post NLT) starting in 2010.
Euro 6 is the first time the new WHDC (world harmonized
duty cycle) is stipulated for certification.
EU Emission Standards for Passenger Cars (M1, M2)*
Stage
Date
CO
HC
HC+N
Ox
NOx
PM
g/km
PN
#/km
Compression Ignition (Diesel)
Euro1
1992.07
2.72
(3.16)
0.97
(1.13)
0.14
(0.18)
Euro2,
IDI
1996.01
1.0
0.7
0.08
Euro2,
DI
1996.01a
1.0
0.9
0.10
Euro3
2000.01
0.64
0.56
0.50
0.05
Euro4
2005.01
0.50
0.30
0.25
0.025
0.50
0.23
0.18
0.005f
Euro5b
2011.09c
0.50
0.23
0.18
0.005f
6.01011
Euro6
2014.09
0.50
0.17
0.08
0.005f
6.01011
Euro5a
2009.09
Positive Ignition (Gasoline)
Euro1
1992.07
2.72
(3.16
)
0.97
(1.1
3)
Euro2
1996.01
2.2
0.5
Euro3
2000.01
2.30
0.20
0.15
Euro4
2005.01
1.0
0.10
0.08
Euro5
2009.09b
1.0
0.10d
0.06
0.005e,f
Euro6
2014.09
1.0
0.10
0.06
0.005
e,f
6.01011
Notes:
*AttheEuro1..4stages,passengervehicles>2,500kgweretypeapprovedas
CategoryN1vehicles
Valuesinbracketsareconformityofproduction(COP)limits
a.until1999.09.30(afterthatdateDIenginesmustmeettheIDIlimits)
b.2011.01forallmodels
c.2013.01forallmodels
[Link]=0.068g/km
[Link]
f.0.0045g/kmusingthePMPmeasurementprocedure
g.6.010121/kmwithinfirstthreeyearsfromEuro6effectivedates
e,g
The Euro 5/6 implementing legislation introduces a new PM mass
emission measurement method (similar to the US 2007 procedure)
developed by the Particulate Measurement Programme (PMP) and
adjusts the PM mass emission limits to account for differences in results
using the old and the new method.
The Euro 5b legislation also introduces a particle number (PN) emission
limit in addition to the mass-based limits. Because gasoline direct injection
engines have gained relevance, a particle number emission limit for
gasoline vehicles is to be defined by September 2014, when Euro 6 is
implemented.
PM by sector
Greenhouse emissions
Some examples of activities that contribute
to greenhouse gas levels are as follows:
Combustion fossil fuels oil, gasoline, gas
and coal;
Industrial processes and mining;
Landfills, septic and sewer systems;
Agricultural practices, including fertilizer and
manure management;
Land use practices, including deforestation.
The greenhouse gas, the most commonly produced by
human activities, is carbon dioxide (CO2). It is responsible
for 63% of the global warming caused by human activities.
The primary greenhouse gases produced by the
transportation sector are:
carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4),
nitrous oxide (N2O), and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFC).
Absolute change of GHG emissions by gas in the EU-27, 2010 - 2011 and total GHG
emissions by gas in the EU-27, 2011
Greenhouse gas
emissions by sector in
EU 27 [2010]
Greenhause emissions in Romania, 2010
The atmospheric lifetimes are estimated to be:
CO2
CH4
N2O
50-200 years,
9-15 years,
120 years.
The three GHGs should be combined with their global
warming potentials:
1 for CO2,
23 for CH4,
296 for N2O,.
The CO2 emissions from transport, can be measured
precisely by multiplying the quantity of fossil fuel used by
the corresponding emission factor.
Emission factor:
2.9 for gasoline;
3.0 for kerosene; or
3.1 for diesel fuel.
One of the main priorities in EU climate change policy
is the reduction of CO2 emissions on new road vehicles.
The target for CO2 emission and fuel consumption
Vehicle
categories
Car
Year 2015
CO2
[g/km]
LDV
130
Year 2020
Fuel
[l/100 km]
SI
CI
5,6
4,9
Year 2017
Van
175
CO2
[g/km]
95
Fuel
[l/100 km]
SI
CI
4,1
3,6
6,3
5,5
Year 2020
7,5
5,6
147
The greenhouse gas emissions from transport is expected to
rise to between 30 and 50%, by 2050 (today it is around 20-25%)
Effective road transport scenarios must meet multiple
objectives referring to motor vehicle and road traffic, such as:
Reduction of CO2 emissions in order to diminish the
impact on climate changes;
Drastic reduction of chemical pollutants and noise
emissions;
Preservation or increase of power trains energetic
parameter
Providing security of fuel supply;
Developing an effective sustainable mobility policy.
Four strategies to reduce transportation GHG and
pollutant emissions:
Introducing low-carbon fuels;
Improving vehicle fuel economy;
Increasing transportation system efficiency and
Diminishing carbon-intensive travel activity.
The greenhouse gas emissions from transport sector
is directly influenced by fuel consumption.
Road transport accounted for the largest share of
their energy consumption and even exceeded 90 % of
the total among new Member States.
Final energy consumption, by mode of transport, EU27 (Mtoe) 1999-2009
Within the transport sector of the EU-27, road
transport was the most energy consuming mode with
an 82 % share of the total in 2009.
Final energy consumption in transport, by fuel, EU27 (Mtoe) 1999-2009.
In absolute terms, motor spirit consumption decreased by
29 % between 1999 and 2009.
On the other hand, the consumption of all other fuels
increased.
Gas/diesel oil consumption recorded a 30 % increase,
kerosenes consumption grew by 17 % and the
consumption of biofuels grew 26 times.
From 2008 to 2009, in EU-27 the consumption of all fuels
but biofuels dropped.[25]
FUELS
Introducing Low-Carbon Fuels
Specifically, a full lifecycle analysis includes:
The full fuel cycle, including upstream emissions
(sometimes called well-to-wheel analysis) associated
with drilling, exploration and production, crude oil
transport, refining, fuel transport, storage, and product
retail, as well as downstream disposal or recycling of oil
products.
A well-to-wheels (WTW) analysis estimate: the
geenhouse gas emissions and the energy efficiency, the
industrial costs of powertrain options and automotive
fuels.
A Well-to-Wheels analysis is main basis to
assess the impact of future fuel and
powertrain options.
fuel production pathway ;
powertrain efficiency
are key to GHG emissions and energy use.
A WTW analysis is also called a fuel cycle
analysis in the transportation fuel area and a
lifecycle analysis in consumer reporting.
Well-to-Wheels analysis
Low-carbon fuel strategies include the development and
introduction of alternative fuels that have lower carbon
content and generate fewer transportation GHG
emissions.
The alternative fuels include: ethanol, biodiesel, natural
gas, liquefied petroleum gas, synthetic fuels, hydrogen,
and electricity.
The studis made on alternative road fuels and their
potential to replace conventional gasoline and diesel fuels
need to consider their potential to save energy and GHG.
At the 2010-2020 horizon, alternative fuels can only be
reasonably expected to supply 10% to 20% of the road
fuel demand.
The EU has adopted the European Strategic Energy
Technology Plan (SET-Plan) as a road-vehicle to
accelerate the development and the large scale use of
low carbon technologies
Primary production of biofuels, EU-27 (Thousand tones).
In the last decade, significant changes were observed
in the fuel mix consumed by the EU-27 transport
sector.
In 2009, gas/diesel oil accounted for 52 % of the total,
an increase of 9 percentage points compared to 1999.
Over the same period, the share of motor spirits
dropped from 41 % in 1999 to 27 % in 2009.
Biofuels accounted for 3 % of total transport
consumption in 2009.
In absolute terms, motor spirit consumption decreased
by 29 % between 1999 and 2009.
On the other hand, the consumption of all other fuels
increased.
Gas/diesel oil consumption recorded a 30 % increase,
kerosenes consumption grew by 17 % and the
consumption of biofuels grew 26 times.
From 2008 to 2009, in EU-27 the consumption of all fuels
but biofuels dropped
Greenhouse Gas Emissions. ( WTTanalysis)
Production of petroleum-based fuels and natural gasbased methanol, results in a smaller amount of GHG
emissions than production of H2 (gaseous and liquid) and
electricity generation
GHG emission values of the three ethanol production
pathways are negative because of carbon sequestration
during growth of corn plants, trees, and grass.
Total Energy Use. ( WTTanalysis)
For the same amount of energy delivered to the vehicle
tank for each of the fuels, petroleum-based fuels and
CNG are subject to the lowest energy losses.
Methanol, hydrogen from natural gas, and corn-based
ethanol are subject to moderate energy losses.
Liquid hydrogen from natural gas, electrolysis hydrogen
(gaseous and liquid), electricity generation, and cellulosic
ethanol are subject to large energy losses.
Alternative Fuels
The studies made on alternative road fuels and their
potential to replace conventional gasoline and diesel fuels
need to consider their potential to save energy and GHG.
At the 2010-2020 horizon, alternative fuels can only be
reasonably expected to supply 10% to 20% of the road
fuel demand.
Primary energy resources and automotive fuels
The European Commission has identified the following
main objectives of biofuels policy:
Greenhouse Gas Saving;
Security of Supply;
Employment.
Biomass energy resources and automotive fuels
Alcohol used as fuel in SI Engine
Comparison of NOx and CO2 emissions for an engine fuelled with
gasoline and alcohol
Using biofuels should take into account the following
facts:
the greenhouse gas emissions must be at least 35%
lower compared to the use of the fossil fuel. From 2017,
the increase need be up to 50% and from 2018 the
saving must be at least 60%;
the raw materials for the biofuels cannot be sourced
from land with high biodiversity or high carbon stock.[20]
Improving vehicle fuel economy;
Vehicle and fuel efficiency strategies comprise:
developing advanced engine and transmission designs,
lighter-weight materials,
improved vehicle aerodynamics, and
reduced rolling resistance
Many of these technological improvements (such as
hybrid-electric powertrains, truck aerodynamic
improvements, and more efficient gasoline engines) are
well developed and could be further incorporated into new
vehicles.
Influence of vehicle technology on vehicles fuel saving
improvment and GHG emission reduction
GHG emission reduction in HDV appling new technologies
Technologies applied to HDV
ENGINE
Advanced engines (ICEs)
There are two ways to achieve the tasks regarding
diminishining of: fuel consumption, pollutant and CO2
emissions:
Improving the internal combustion engine processes
using the latest technologies;
Using new fueling systems and alternative fuels in
ICE.
Conventional road fuels are widely expected to provide
the bulk of road transportation needs for many years to
come.
For SI engines, the main contribution to fuel efficiency improvement
comes from downsizing (minus 30%) associated with
supercharging
Several new energy-efficient propulsion systems are
currently being investigated :
GDI and diesel engines;
Turbo/super charging;
Highly active intake systems;
Electronically controlled valve actuation/timing;
Drive by wire systems;
Cylinder deactivation;
EGR;
Engine start/stop systems.
SPARK IGNITION ENGINES
Conventional 1 Spark Ignition (SI): Naturally Aspirated
Spark Ignition
Variable and optimized cooling rates at different
operating conditions,
Variable valve timing (Miller/Atkinson cycles),
Reduced mechanical friction losses
May be either pre-mixed or DI
SI IVT: 1 Spark Ignition with Infinitely Flexible Valve
Timing and Boosting (Turbocharged)
SPARK IGNITION ENGINES
DISI: Direct Injection Turbocharged Gasoline Engine
Combustion system development for stratified
operation across entire part load range
Lean with NOx treatment (20%) or Stoichiometric
(5%)
DNSZ SI: Downsized, highly boosted DISI
30% reduction in displacement
Turbocharged
Lean with NOx treatment (30%) or Stoichiometric
(10%)
Fuel Economy Benefits from Engine Boosting
Downsizing and Downspeeding
Reduced Engine Displacement and Decreased Engine Speed
Increase Engine Load for Reduce Fuel Consumption
-Good low end torque is essential
Gasoline Direct Injection is a Key to Improve Low End Torque in
Boosted Engines
-Improved Volumetric Efficiency
-Direct injection with cam phasing allows scavenging with fresh
air to reduce residual gas fraction
-Reduced knock propensity
-In-cylinder fuel vaporization reduces charge temperature
-Improved combustion phasing
-Charge motion increases burn rate
Benefits
-Fuel economy improvement
-9-15% for homogeneous systems
-15-21% for stratified systems
-Improved fuel control and rapid catalyst light-off with split-injection
during cold start
-Increased power and responsiveness
3 and 4 Cylinder Engine Analysis Comparison
3 Cylinder Engine Offers Improved Engine Breathing at Full Load
- Reduced firing frequency increases scavenging for improved
full load torque
3 Cylinder Engine Provides Reduced Fuel Consumption and
Emissions
-Reduced heat transfer surface area
-Reduced quench layer and crevices
-Lower friction
3 Cylinder Engine Increases NVH -Unbalanced 1st and 2nd order
torque pulses require counterbalancing
-Results in slight friction increase
Overall Conclusion: 3 Cylinder Engine is the Preferred Configuration
for Displacements < 1.5L
DIESEL ENGINES
HSDI: (High Speed) Direct Injection Diesel (lean)
Turbocharged perhaps multi stage
Lean NOx exhaust gas treatment
Diesel particulate filter
DIESEL ENGINES
LTE: Low Temperature Engine (lean)
Also known as HCCI, PCCI or CAI
Power boosting perhaps electrically assisted
turbocharger
Advanced controls including start of combustion
sensing
Low-temperature oxidation catalyst
NOx aftertreatment technology, such as:
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)technology using
ammonia from external source as a reductant,
Lean NOx catalysis (LNC) using hydrocarbons from the
engine or by exhaust fuel injection as a reductant,
or
Storage catalysts with periodic regeneration (lean NOx
traps (LNT)).
Euro 6, proposed emissions limit values may be achieved
by adding new technology package.
For diesel cars, included two components over those
needed for the Euro 5.
The components are:
Internal engine measures, such as :
Reduced engine compression ratio,
Increased exhaust gas recirculation (EGR),
Advanced fuel injection systems,
Advanced turbocharging and
Advanced combustion control; and
hV = volumetric efficiency
Vair = volume of air taken into cylinder [cc, L, or m3]
Vc = cylinder swept volume [cc, L, or m3]
* Increase the engine volumetric efficiency increase engine power
- Engine of normal aspiration has a volumetric efficiency of 80% to 90%
- Engine volumetric efficiency can be increased by using:
(turbo and supper charger can increase the volumetric efficiency by 50%)
r = compression ratio
Vs = cylinder swept volume (combustion chamber volume) [cc, L, or m3]
Vc = cylinder volume [cc, L, or m3]
* Increase the compression ratio increase engine power
- r (gasoline engine) = 7:12, the upper limit is engine pre ignition
- r (diesel engine) = 10:18, the upper limit is the stresses on engine parts
imep = is the indicated mean effective pressure [N/m2]
Ac = cylinder area [m2]
L = stroke length [m]
n = number of cylinders
N = engine speed [rpm]
z = 1 (for 2 stroke engines), 2 (for 4 stroke engines)
Vc = cylinder swept volume [m3]
Ve = engine swept volume [m3]
Ti = engine indicated torque [Nm]
= engine angular speed [1/s]
