SEM Fall 2010

Chapter 1

Introduction to System Engineering

Sahar Idrees
What is a System
• A regularly interacting or interdependent group
of items acting as a whole.
• A composite of equipment, skills and techniques
capable of performing and/or supporting an
operational role.
• A complete system includes all equipment,
related facilities, materials, software, services
and personnel required for its operation and
support to the degree that it can be considered a
self-sufficient unit its intended environment.
General Characteristics
1. A system constitutes a complex combination of
resources (like human beings, materials,
equipment, software, facilities, data, money.)

These resources need to be combined in an

effective manner.
Can’t leave this to chance alone!
General Characteristics(cont’d)
2. A system is contained within some form of
hierarchy. Example:
Airplane: included within an Airline
Airline: part of an overall transportation capability
Transportation capability: operated within a specific
geographic environment.
Geographic environment: part of the world!

A System is highly influenced by the performance

of the higher level system!!
General Characteristics(cont’d)
3. A system may be broken down into subsystems
and related components.
Extent of this breakdown depends upon:
• the complexity of system.
• the function(s) being performed by the system.
Advantage: Dividing the system into smaller
units allows for a simpler approach for:
• initial allocation of requirements
• Analysis of system and its functional interfaces
General Characteristics(cont’d)
4. A system must have a purpose.
It must be:
• Functional
• Able to respond to some identified need.
• Able to achieve its overall objective ins some cost-
effective manner.
There might be a conflict of objectives, influenced
by the higher level systems in the hierarchy.
System should be able to meet its stated purpose
in the best possible way.(optimization)
Categories of Systems
1. Natural and man-made systems:
Natural System: river
Man-made System: any system developed by
human beings e.g. a hydroelectric power system.

Being embedded in the natural world, all these

systems interact with each other.
e.g. a hydroelectric power system located on a
river system.
2. Physical and conceptual systems
Physical Systems: composed of real components
occupying space.
Conceptual systems: can be “an organization of
ideas” or “a set of specifications and plans” or “a
series of abstract concepts”.

Conceptual systems often lead directly to the

development of physical systems.

Interfaces may be many: need to address these

elements in the context of a higher level system .
[Link] and Dynamic Systems
Static Systems: have structure but not activity.
e.g. Highway bridge, warehouse.
Dynamic Systems: combine structural
components with activity. E.g. a production
capability combining a manufacturing facility,
capital equipment, utilities, conveyors, workers,
transportation vehicles, data, software,
managers etc.
4. Closed and open-loop systems
Closed Loop Systems: Self contained and does
not significantly interact with the environment.
Open Loop Systems: interact with their
environments.
Boundaries are crossed through flow of
information, energy and/or matter.
Interactions take place among:
• Various system components
• Up and down the hierarchical structure.
 Text primarily deals with systems that are

• Man made
• Physical by nature
• Dynamic in operation
• Open loop
The System
Categories of System Components
System components can be broadly classified into
two categories:
[Link] that are directly utilized in the actual
accomplishment of the mission. E.g. prime
equipment, operating software, operating
personnel.
[Link] of maintenance support. e.g.
maintenance personnel, test equipment,
facilities, spares and repair parts.
Major Elements of a System
System of Systems (SOS)
• A collection of component systems that produce
results unachievable by individual systems
alone.
• Each component system is likely to be
operational by itself as well as contributing to
some higher-level mission requirement.
• Life cycles of component systems may vary. SO
additions and deletions happen.
The Current Environment:
Some Challenges!!
1. Constantly changing requirements.
2. More emphasis on systems.
3. Increasing system complexities.
4. Extended system life cycles, shorter
technology life cycles.
5. Greater utilization of commercial off-the-
shelf (COTS) products.
The Current Environment:
Some Challenges!! (cont’d)
6. Increasing globalization.
7. Greater International Competition.
8. More outsourcing.
9. Eroding industrial base.
[Link] overall life costs.
The System Life Cycle
Life cycle of a system comprises entire spectrum
of activity including:
[Link] of need
[Link] design and development
[Link] and/or construction
[Link] use
[Link] maintenance and support
[Link] retirement and material disposal
The System Life Cycle (cont’d)
• The activities in each phase interact with
activities in other phases.
• Duration of specific activities may be different.
• Various phases of activities may overlap.

=> It is essential to consider overall life cycle in

addressing system-level issues and assessing
risks associated with decision-making process
throughout.
 The System Life Cycle
Identified need

Design and Production Operational use Retirement and

development and/or and maintenance material disposal
construction support

Feedback
The Cost Impact due to Changes
Cost Impact due to changes
• Well-defined overall system requirements right
form the beginning
• Previously there was short-term focus Design it
now and fix it later
• Good early planning and subsequently a
complete and methodical definition and
allocation of requirements
• Late changes and lack of configuration control
can be rather costly
Imbalance between System Cost and
Effectiveness Factors
Imbalance between System Cost and
Effectiveness Factors
• Balance to be maintained despite ever-
increasing system complexity
• Increase in emphasis on some performance
factors but:
▫ Overall reliability & quality are decreasing while
▫ Overall long-term costs are increasing
• Any specific design decision will have an impact
on both sides of the balance and the interaction
effects can be significant.
Total Cost Visibility
Total Cost Visibility
• System operation and maintenance costs are
somewhat hidden (approx. > 75% of the life-
cycle costs)
• Design community not very responsive to the
long-term effects of cost
• Very important to assess the life-cycle
implications prior to finalizing the decision
Commitment of Life Cycle Cost
The Need for System Engineering
Challenge: to be more effective and efficient
• in the development and acquisition of new
systems.
• In the support and operation of system already
in use.

This can be accomplished through proper

implementation of system engineering concepts,
principles and methods.
Systems Engineering: Definition
The Systems Engineering process shall:
[Link] approved operational needs to an
integrated system design solution through
concurrent consideration of all life-cycle needs.
[Link] the interoperability and integration of all
operational, functional and physical interfaces.
[Link] and manage technical risks.
Areas of Emphasis in Systems
Engineering
1. A top-down approach is required.
2. A life cycle orientation is required.
3. A better and more complete effort is required relative to
initial identification of system requirements.(in the past,
early “front end” analysis effort has been minimal.)
4. An interdisciplinary effort is required throughout the
system design to ensure that all design objectives are met in
an effective manner.
Top-down/Bottom-up System
Development Process
The Basic Life Cycle Process
• The next fig presents an extension of the basic life
cycle process.
• It gives us baselines that should be established as we
progress from initial identification of need to the
development of a fully operational system.
• Every time there is a newly identified need, design
engineer should evolve through certain steps.
• These steps are iterative in nature evolving from
system level definition to subsystem level, detailed
level down to component level.
• Steps are not necessarily serial; might interact with
feedback.
• The Functional Analysis identifies the “whats”
from a requirements perspective and leads to the
accomplishment of trade-offs and description of
“hows”.
• As one progresses through life-cycle, there needs
to be complete traceability of requirements from
the system level, down to the component level.
Feedback in the System Engineering
Process
In Summary:
System Engineering process is
• Continuous
• Iterative
• Incorporates necessary feedback to ensure
convergence.
Requirements for System Engineering
• A primary objective of systems engineering is to
evolve through the process illustrated in prev fig.
• Every time a new system requirement is
identified we progress through a series of steps
that ll logically and effectively lead to an end
solution.
• No matter what the complexity of system, same
basic process should be followed.
• A bottom-up approach has been used uptill now
which is costly. A top-down/bottom-up
approach is better.
System Architecture

Architecture is defined as the fundamental

organization of a system, embodied in:
 Its components
 Their relationships to each other and
environment
 The principles guiding its design and
evolution.
How System Architecture evolves
• An architecture deals with top-level description of
system structure.
• Then it describes how these requirements interact.
• This in turn leads to Functional Architecture
which evolves from the functional analysis and its
description in “functional” terms.
• From the above analysis, the requirements
allocation process and the definition of various
resource requirements necessary to accomplish its
mission the Physical Architecture of a system is
defined.
System Science vs System Engineering
• System Science: deals primarily with the
observation, identification, description,
experimental investigation and theoretical
explanation of laws, inter-relationships etc.

• System Engineering: includes the application

of scientific principles throughout the system
design and implementation process.
System Analysis
Analysis refers to
 A separation of the whole into its component parts
 An examination of these parts and their inter-
relationships.
 A follow-on decision relative to a future course of
action.
System Analysis includes the ongoing analytical
process of evaluating alternatives,
employing the application of mathematical
models and associated analytical tools as
appropriate.
Some Additional System Models
The Water-fall Model
• Based on a top-down approach for software development
• Includes the steps of initiation, requirements analysis,
design, testing and so on.
• In its implementation, often the steps were viewed as
being relatively independent and executed in a strict
sense.
• The required interfaces(among hardware, human
factors, facilities and data) were not usually considered.
The Spiral Model
• Was developed for software-intensive systems.
• The analyst continually examines objectives,
strategies, design alternatives, and validation
methods.
• System development results through several
iterations of the model.
• Rapid prototyping is used in each cycle and the
system incorporates risk analysis.
• Particularly useful in high risk environments
because design evolves as detailed requirements
emerge.
The Vee Model

• Reflects a top-down and bottom-up approach to

system development.
• Left side of the vee represents evolution of user
requirements into preliminary & detailed design.
• Right side represents the integration and and
verification of system components through sub-
system and system testing.
System Engineering in the Life Cycle:
its applicable in all phases
• Conceptual design: emphasis is on understanding true needs
of consumer and transforming them into actual system
requirements. These form the baseline that must be traceable
from top down to component level.
• The emphasis then shifts to an iterative process of synthesis,
analysis, design optimization and validation. Trade-offs must
be made and conflict of objectives must be resolved in an
effective manner.
• System engineering activities continue through construction/
production phase to ensure the system is compliant with
requirements.
• There is an ongoing process of assessment with proper
feedback throughout operational use and maintenance
support phase. Benchmarking should be done using a
baseline configuration established through experience.
System Engineering in the Life
Cycle(cont’d)
When changes are being initiated:
• Consequences of these changes must be
evaluated from a top system-level perspective.
• Principles of configuration management and
change control must be implemented to ensure
consistency of end results with basic
requirements such that balance between cost
and effectiveness is maintained.
• The upward and downward interaction effects
must be addressed in a systems context.
System Engineering in the Life
Cycle(cont’d)

An integrated team approach is required for the

success of system:
Different participating organizations/entities must
accomplish their own jobs as well as maintain
coordination among themselves so as to fulfill
the systems engineering objectives.
Related Terms and Definitions
• There must be a forward flow of activities
(design, development, construction/production,
transportation) that are essential in order to
accomplish the ultimate system objectives.
• Reverse(or backward) flow of activities deal with
The maintenance and support of the system
throughout its life cycle. This may be necessary
in the event of a system failure.
System operation and Maintenance Flow
• Historically the emphasis was chiefly on forward flow
only(catering only for after the fact occurrences) and
problems were addressed downstream. This led to the
idea of design for performance only.
• Actually there should be equal emphasis on both
forward and reverse flow right from outset(catering for
before the fact). This has increased the emphasis on:
• design for reliability and maintainability
• design for produceability
• design for packaging
• design for transportation and handling
• design for environment
• design for supportability and serviceability
• design for disposability and recyclibility.
Concurrent/Simultaneous Engineering
• A systematic approach to the integrated,
concurrent design of products and their related
processes including manufacturing and support.

• This approach causes the developers to consider

from the beginning, all elements of the product
life-cycle from conception to disposal.

• As such, concurrent engineering should be

included within system engineering process.
Some Major Supporting Design
Disciplines
1. Software Engineering
2. Reliability Engineering
3. Maintainability Engineering
4. Human Factors and Safety Engineering
5. Security Engineering
6. Manufacturing and Production Engineering
7. Logistics and Supportability Engineering
8. Disposability Engineering
9. Environmental Engineering
Logistics and Supply Chain
Management(SCM)
• Supply Chain: A group of organizations and
activities involved in the overall flow of
materials and services from various supplier
sources to the ultimate customer(s).
• Logistics(in commercial sector): that part
of the supply chain process that plans,
implements and controls the efficient forward
and reverse flow and storage of goods, services
and related info between the point of origin
and the point of consumption to meet
customer requirements.
Logistics and Supply Chain
Management(cont’d)
• Historically emphasis has been on the physical
aspects of SC.
• Recently, commercial/business logistics have
expanded due to advent of newer technology.
• Due to increased outsourcing, greater int’l
competition and increased globalization, there
has been more emphasis on SCM as a separate
discipline.
Integrated Systems Maintenance and
Support
There can be various levels of maintenance in the
system depending on requirements. Following
example has three levels of maintenance

• Organizational Maintenance
• Intermediate Maintenance
• Depot/producer Maintenance
Total Productive
Maintenance(TPM)
• Promotes overall effectiveness and efficiency of
factory equipment(including maintenance
prevention[MP] and maintainability
improvement[MI]).
• Establishes a preventive maintenance program for
equipment based on life-cycle criteria.
• is implemented on a team basis (involving various
depts).
• Involves every employee(along hierarchy).
• Is based on the promotion of preventive
maintenance through motivational management.
Data & Information Management
• Vast amounts of data and info available
throughout system life cycle.
• Challenge: to plan for, coordinate and
integrate such data into a unified data package
from the beginning.
• Too much or too little data can be very costly.
• Appropriate amount of data should be available
in a timely fashion.
• Data/info integration and management function
should be included within the overall spectrum
of system engg.
Configuration Management(CM)
• It includes identifying, documenting and
auditing the physical and functional
characteristics of an item, recording its
configuration and controlling changes with
proper documentation.
• CM is a concept of baseline management
including functional baseline, allocated baseline
and product baseline.(fig.1.12)
Total Quality Management

• Totally integrated management approach.

• Addresses system/product quality during each

phase and level in the system hierarchy.

• Provides a before the fact orientation to

quality(focus on forward as well as reverse flow
of activities).
Total System Value and Life Cycle Cost
• Life Cycle Costs(LCC): Include all costs
associated with system life cycle. These include
1. R&D cost.
[Link]/construction cost.
3.O&M cost.
[Link] retirement and phase out cost.

Objective is to ensure total cost visibility.

System Engineering Management
Two Sides of spectrum:
• Technological
• Managerial