Control and Modelling
of Bioprocesses
Slides adapted from Dr. Katie Third
Lecture Outline
• Purpose of Process Control
• Building blocks of process control
– The bioreactor (modelling)
– Sensors
– Actuators
– Controllers
• Basic control schemes
• Basic Controller Actions
• Case examples
Process Control
Guidance of the process along a certain
path to produce a product that meets
predefined quality specifications
The Aim
To produce the product of interest at a
minimum of operating costs (ie. Increase
the cost/benefit ratio)
Process Control
Involves the use of monitored
information to make decisions that
affect the process in a desirable
way
Make
On the decision
right path? Process
Reasons for Process Control
• Easier optimisation of the process
• More constant product quality
• Detection of problems and their
location at an early stage
• Greater quality assurance
4 Basic Building Blocks of a Controlled
Process
3. Actuators
4. Controllers
2. Sensors
1. The plant (bioreactor)
(1) Bioreactor
Batch process
• significant changes of process variables over time
• requires more complex control
• requires experience with the process (feed
forward control)
Steady state processes (chemostat)
• constant process conditions
• more simple process control
• feedback control often sufficient
(2) Sensors (Measuring Devices)
• Enable monitoring of the state of
the process
– e.g. temperature, DO
concentration, biomass conc.
• Measurements can be on-line or
off-line.
On-line Measurements
• Performed automatically
• Results directly available for control
• Monitored continuously
Off-line Measurements
• Require human interface
• Less frequent and usually irregular
• Best suited for checking and calibrating
Types of On-line Measuring
Equipment
Physical Measurements
– Temperature
– Weight
– Liquid flow rates
– Gaseous flow rates
– Liquid level
– Pressure inside vessel
10.12 kg
Sensors (continued)
Physico-Chemical Measurements
• pH
• Oxidation-reduction potential
(ORP, Eh)
• Dissolved oxygen
• Conductivity
• Off-gases (CO2, H2, CH4)
• NH4+ (ion-selective electrodes)
Sensors (continued)
Biochemical Measurements
• Respiration rate (OUR, SOUR)
• Volatile fatty acids (VFA’s)
• Flourescence (e.g. NADH)
• Turbidity
Requirements of a good on-line
sensor
• Heat and pressure resistant
autoclavable
• Mechanically robust
• Resistant to bacterial adhesion
• Stable over a long period
• Fast dynamics in relation to the
measured variable
• Linear characteristics easy in-situ
calibration
(3) Actuators
• Devices which make the changes to
the process, e.g.
• Aeration pumps
• Stirrers
• Feed pumps
• Chemical dosing pumps
• Inoculation ports
• Recycle pumps
(4) Controllers
Devices that decide on the
appropriate action to be taken to
keep the process running along the
desired path
– Computers
– “Biocontrollers”
Basic Control Schemes
• Open-Loop Control (Feedforward)
• Closed-Loop Control (Feedback)
– Inferential control
• Combined feedforward and feedback
(model-supported control)
Feedforward Control
(Open-Loop Control)
• The pattern of the manipulable variable is
predetermined, and directly adjusts the
actuator
• There is no feedback from the process to the
controller
• Requires no measurement of the variable
• Often model-based requires reliable model
• Large deviations of the process from the
required path are not corrected for
• Sounds very theoretical (examples?)
Feedforward Control
(Open-Loop Control)
Examples:
• Washing machine
• Breadmaker
• Often in combination with feedback control
aspects (e.g. Waste water treatment, DiCOM
process
Feedback Control
(Closed-Loop Control)
• Conventional and most common type of control
scheme … “safest”
• Measurements from the process are used to
calculate a suitable control action
• Appropriate when the accuracy requirement is
higher
• Deviations between the variable and its setpoint
are used to change the process
smaller deviations
Feedback Control
(Closed-Loop Control)
Examples of feedback loops:
• Temperature control
• pH control
• Oxygen control (e.g. SND)
Feedback Control
(Closed-Loop Control)
Measured
error Actuator output
Controller Process
Ideal Feedback Controller
2
DO
mg L-1
1
Time
Overshooting
If the input signal does not immediately affect
the output delayed action typical of on/off
controllers
Caused by things such as;
• feed pump too large for required dosage
• delay in sensor response
2
DO
mg L-1
1
Time
Combined Feedforward and Feedback
Control
• Individual feedback loops (pH, oxygen) within an
overall process based on feed forward (DiCOM
by ANAECO)
• To compensate for small model deviations and
unpredicted disturbances
• Feedforward control establishes control
according to process model
• Feedback allows for refinement by correcting
for deviations
Combined Feedforward and Feedback
Control
Feedforward
Process
controller
Feedback
controller
Set point
Inferential Control
When direct feedback of the variable of
interest is not possible, on-line measurements
can be used to “infer” the state of the
variables (also called State Estimation)
E.g. DO fluctuations SOUR
DO
dcL/dt OUR
Time
State Estimation
• Measurements give indirect information
about critical variables in the process (e.g.
biomass activity, biomass concentration,
substrate concentration etc.)
• Using the on-line measurements to estimate
the current state of the biomass
state estimators (e.g. SOUR)
• Advantage: enables on-line control of a
variable that cannot be measured on-line
• Modelling plays important role
State Estimation
• Also the Control action itself can be
recorded and used as an online or offline
process analysis tool.
• For example the total duration over
which the alkali dosing pump has been
switched on, allows to calculate the
amount of alkali used to counteract the
acid produced in the bioprocess
Biological acid production is recorded
online.
Car steering analogy of PID
controller
Current
signal Setpoint
Basic Controller Decision making
Get
New
Temp.
Temp <
N Setp.? Y
Turn Turn
Heater Heater
Off On
Wait
X
sec
Basic Controller Actions
• Simplest type – digital
on-off switching, e.g. thermostat
• PID control (very common and
important)
• Fuzzy logic control, Adaptive
Controllers, Self learning systems
(not covered in this unit)
On-Off controller
• E.g. stop airflow if DO is higher
than setpoint large oscillations
of process variable
• can use an acceptable band of
values with no control action, e.g.
If pH > 8 then run acid pump. If
pH<6 then run base pump. no
precise control
Proportional Controller
• Multiplies the deviation of the variable from the
setpoint with a constant, Kp
• The further away the variable from the setpoint,
the stronger the action
Control input = (Process output – Setpoint).Kp Controller
signal signal output
Proportional controller
Setpoint
Car – steering analogy: Check distance from middle of
the lane and correct steering in proportion to
distance from desired position
Integral controller
Setpoint
Car steering analogy:
Look out through the back window and keep track of
•how long the car has been out of desired position and
•by how much.
How long (sec) * how much (m) is the integral (sec*m).
The longer the car was positioned away from the
setpoint the stronger the signal
Good to correct for long term and only slight deviation
from setpoint.
Integrating Controllers
• Integration of a curve area under the curve
• Integrated input signal is multiplied by a factor, Ki
Integrating Controllers
• A purely integrating controller is slow
and
• Error takes long time to build up
• Action can become too strong
overshooting
• Int controller is unaware of current
position Generally used combined with
P control (looking at current position) –
PI control
Differentiating Controller
• Examines the rate of change of the output of
the process
• The faster the change, the stronger the
action
• The derivative of the output (slope) is
multiplied by a constant, Kd
Car steering analogy of
Differential controller -
Setpoint
Differentiating Element and PID
Controllers
• Differential control is insensitive to slow
changes
• If the variable is parallel to the setpoint, no
change is made (slope = 0)
• Differential control is very useful when
combined with P and I control PID control
Problems with individual PID
control elements
Setpoint
P: Alarm: strong left turn needed
I: No problem: Past Right and Left errors are about
equal
D: No problem: Direction is parallel to setpoint
Problems with individual PID
control elements
Setpoint
P: No problem: Signal position is on setpoint
D: Alarm: Direction is wrong. Left turn needed
Conflicting or neutralising advice
by PID control elements
Setpoint
P: Alarm: Position too far left. Turn right
D: Alarm: Direction too far towards right. Turn Left.
position is on setpoint
Time Analogy of PID Controllers
• P: Present time. Only considers current
position. Not aware of current direction
and of error history
• I: Past time. Only compiles an error sum
of the past. Not aware of current
distance of signal from setpoint and of
current direction.
• D: Future time. Only considers current
direction (trend). Now aware of current
distance of signal from setpoint and of
error history.
Questions – True of False?
• Differentiating elements are capable of
detecting small changes providing they occur
rapidly - TRUE
• Integrating elements always respond rapidly
to changes in output signals - FALSE
• A long delay time in a feedback control
system may lead to considerable overshoot
- TRUE
Questions – True of False?
• Time between changes in measured values and
control action should always be as short as
possible
- FALSE
• A proportional controller once set up to maintain
an output of a process at a setpoint will not
require any re-adjustment to ensure the output
remains constant - Usually FALSE
• A state estimator allows us to operate on-line
control of a variable for which no on-line
measurements are available
- TRUE
Content beyond this point is not
examinable
Proportional Integral Derivative
(PID) Controllers
• Conventional and classical approach of control
engineering
1
t
d
m(t ) K c .dt D
1 0 dt
• Parameters Kc, I and D can be determined
from simple experiments
Determining the PID values
DO
mg L-1
A
B
K=A/B
=gain
Time
a T
Actuating signal
Process response
Determining the PID values
• Ziegler/Nicols Procedure
PID Control
KC = (1.2/K) T/a (proportional)
I = 2.0 a (differential)
D = 0.5 a (integral)
1
t
d
m(t ) K c .dt D
1 0 dt
Adaptive Controllers (not
examinable)
• The state of the biomass changes continuously
during the course of a non-steady state
bioprocess (the car may turn into a boat)
• Required PID values of controller change
• Adaptive controllers continuously adjust control
parameters during the running process
• Requires finding how to “tune” the control values
Experimentation and finding linear relationships
between state of biomass and PID values
Adaptive Controllers
• Result in significant improvements to the
control
• Tuning of control parameters can be easy when
simple “black-box” assumptions can be made
• When simple assumptions are not adequate,
process dynamics must be considered in a
process model
Model-supported control (or combined
feedback and feedforward control
Fuzzy Logic Control
• Useful when concrete knowledge cannot be
transformed into mathematical equations
• Based on “fuzzy logic”
e.g. “If … happens, take … action”
• Although very simplified, whole
bioprocesses can run effectively on fuzzy
logic rules
Learning Outcomes
You should be able to;
– Explain the range of control schemes that exist for
controlling a bioprocess
– Understand how the different types of controllers
work
– Identify which variables will need controlling in a
bioprocess
– Identify useful features of an on-line measuring
device
– Recognize applications of process control in the
food industry
