Basic Engineering Measurement
AGE 2310
Lecture
2 King Saud University
Al Muzahimiyah Branch
College of Engineering
Dr. Rihem FARKH
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Topic 2: Measurement
Calibration & Uncertainty
Analysis
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Course Objectives
To know Error & Uncertainty Analysis.
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Basic Terminology of Measurement
Measurement
The International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in
Metrology (VIM), using International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) norms, has defined measurement as " a
set of operations having the object of determining the value of
a quantity". In other words, a measurement is the evaluation
of a quantity made after comparing it to a quantity of the same
type which we use as a "unit".
Metrology
the science and "grammar" of measurement is defined as "the
field of knowledge concerned with measurement“.
Standardized measurement units mean that scientific and
economic figures can be understood, reproduced, and
converted with a high degree of certitude.
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Basic Terminology of Measurement
Instrumentation
refers to a group of permanent systems which help us measure
objects. In this sense, instruments and systems of
measurement constitute the "tools" of measurement and
metrology.
Load Effects
measurement operations may require connection or without
contact.
This linking of an instrument to an object or site of
investigation means that a transfer of energy and/or
information termed "a load effect" takes place.
An example of this is shown by the insertion of a measuring
probe into a cup of tea which takes some heat from the tea,
leading to a difference between the "true“ value and the value
to be measured.
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Calibration
The relationship between the value of the input to the
measurement system and the system’s indicated output value
is established during calibration of the measurement system.
The known value used for the calibration is called the standard.
The quantity to be measured being the measurand, which we
call m, the sensor must convert m into an electrical variable
called s. The expression s = F(m) is established by calibration.
By using a standard or unit of measurement, we discover for
these values of m (m1, m2 … mi ) electrical signals sent by the
sensor (s1, s2 ... si ) and we trace the curve s(m), called the
sensor calibration curve.
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Accuracy & Precision
Accuracy of a system can be estimated during calibration. If
the input value of calibration is known exactly, then it can
called the true value. The accuracy of a measurement system
refers to its ability to indicate a true value exactly.
Accuracy = It is the ability of instrument to tell the truth
Accuracy is related to absolute error, ε:
ε = true value – indicated value
from which the percent accuracy is found by :
Precision: or repeatability of a measuring system refers to the
ability of the system to indicate a particular value upon
repeated but independent applications of a specific value input.
Precision of a measurement describes the units used to
measure something.
Precision = It is the ability of the instrument to give the
same output for the same input under the same
conditions
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Precision Example: How long is the pencil?
It is impossible to make a perfectly precise measurement.
Accuracy can be improved up to but not beyond the precision
of the instrument by calibration.
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Precision & Bias Errors
Precision Error - Random error
is a measure of the random variation found during repeated
measurements.
random error = reading - average of readings
Random error causes a random variation in measured values
found during repeated measurements of a variable
Bias (Systematic) Error
is the difference between the average value in a series of
repeated calibration measurements and the true value.
Systematic error causes an offset between the mean value of
the data set and its true value
systematic error = average value - true value
Both random and systematic errors affect a system’s accuracy.
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Precision & Bias Errors
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Precision & Bias Errors
Effects of precision and bias errors on calibration readings
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Term Used in Instrument Rating
Resolution: The smallest increment of change in the measured
value that can be determined from the instrument’s readout
scale. The resolution is often on the same order as the
precision; sometimes it is smaller.
Sensitivity: The change of an instrument’s output per unit
change in the measured quantity. Typically, an instrument with
higher sensitivity will have also finer resolution, better
precision, and higher accuracy.
Range: The proper procedure for calibration is to apply known
inputs ranging from the minimum to the maximum values for
which the measurement system is to be used. These limits the
operating range of the system.
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Error Classifications
Systematic, Fixed or Bias Errors:
Insidious in nature, exist unnoticed unless deliberately searched.
Repeated readings to be in error by the same amount.
Not susceptible to statistical analysis.
Calibration errors
Certain consistently recurring human error
Technique error
Uncorrected loading error
Limitations of system resolution
Precision or Random Errors:
Distinguished by their lack of consistency. Usually (not always)
follow a certain statistical distribution.
In many instances very difficult to distinguish from bias errors.
Error stemming from environmental variations
Certain type of human error
Error resulting from variations in definition .
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Error Classifications
Illegitimate Errors
are simply mistakes on the part of experimenter
Can be eliminated through the exercise of care and repetition of the
measurement.
Blunders and mistakes
Computational errors
Chaotic errors.
Uncertainty
The uncertainty is a numerical estimate of the possible range of the
error in a measurement.
In any measurement, the error is not known exactly since the true
value is rarely known exactly.
that the error is within certain bounds, a plus or minus range of the
indicated reading
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Uncertainty
Total Error
Bias Error
Precision
Error
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X True
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Uncertainty
When we measure some physical quantity with an
instrument and obtain a numerical value, we want to know
how close this value is to the true value.
The difference between the true value and the measured
value is the error.
Unfortunately, the true value is unknown and unknowable.
If we knew it, we wouldn’t need the experiment.
Since this is the case, the exact error is never known. We
can only estimate it.
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Uncertainty
The estimate of the error is called the uncertainty.
It includes both bias and precision errors.
We need to identify all the potential significant
errors for the instrument(s).
All measurements should be given in three parts
Mean value
Uncertainty
Confidence interval on which that uncertainty is
based (typically 95% C.I.)
Uncertainty can be expressed in either absolute terms
(i.e., 5 Volts ±0.5 Volts)
or in
percentage terms (i.e., 5 Volts ±10%)
(relative uncertainty = DV / V x 100)
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We will use a 95 % confidence interval throughout this
course
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Uncertainty: How to Estimate Bias Error
Manufacturers’ Specifications
If you can’t do better, you may take it from the
manufacturer’s specs.
Accuracy - %reading, offset, or some combination
(e.g., 0.1% reading + 0.15 counts)
Unless you can identify otherwise, assume that
these are at a 95% confidence interval
Independent Calibration
May be deduced from the calibration process
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Random Uncertainty
Use Statistics to Estimate Random Uncertainty
Mean: the sum of measurement values divided by the
number of measurements.
1 N
x xi
N i 1
Deviation: the difference between a single result and the
mean of many results.
d i xi x
Standard Deviation: is used to quantify the amount of
variation or dispersion of a set of data values
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A low standard deviation indicates that the data points
tend to be close to the mean
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Uncertainty
Large sample size
1
1 2
xi x
2
n
Small sample size (n<30)
Slightly larger value
1
1 2
x i x
2
s
n 1
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Uncertainty
Population: The collection of all items (measurements) of
the group. Represented by a large number of
measurements.
Gaussian distribution*
3 - 2 - x 2 3
x i x 1 n 68.3% of the time
xi x 2 n 95.4% of the time
x i x 3 n 99.7% of the time
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Sample: A portion of (or limited number of items in) a
population.
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Student t-distribution (small sample sizes)
The t-distribution was formulated by W.S. Gosset, a
scientist in the Guinness brewery in Ireland, who
published his formulation in 1908 under the pen name
(pseudonym) “Student.”
The t-distribution looks very much like the Gaussian
distribution, bell shaped, symmetric and centered about
the mean. The primary difference is that it has stronger
tails, indicating a lower probability of being within an
interval. The variability depends on the sample size, n.
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Student t-distribution
With a confidence interval of c%
s s
x t /2, X x t /2,
n n
Where =1-c and v=n-1 (Degrees of Freedom)
Don’t apply blindly - you may have better information
about the population than you think.
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Inter - Bayamon Reading Number Volts, mv
Student t-distribution 1 5.30
2 5.73
3 6.77
4 5.26
Example: t-distribution 5 4.33
Sample data 6 5.45
7 6.09
n = 21
8 5.64
Degrees of Freedom v= n -1= 20 9 5.81
Desire 95% Confidence Interval 10 5.75
= 1 - c = 0.05
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12
5.42
5.31
/ 2 0.025 13
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5.86
5.70
15 4.91
Student t-dist chart 16 6.02
t=2.086 17 6.25
18 4.99
19 5.61
20 5.81
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21 5.60
Mean 5.60
Standard dev. 0.51
Variance 0.26
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Student t-distribution
Precision error is
±0.23 Volts
s
x t
2 , n
0.51
5.60 2.086
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5.60 0.23
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Student t-distribution
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How to combine bias and precision error?
Rules for combining independent uncertainties for
measurements:
Both uncertainties MUST be at the same Confidence
Interval (95%)
Ux B P 2
x x
2
Precision error obtained using Student’s-t method
Bias error determined from calibration,
manufacturers’ specifications, smallest division.
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Propagation of Error
For a function y = f(x1,x2,...,xN), the RSS uncertainty is:
f 2 f
2
f
2
u RSS x1 x2 ... xN
x1 x2 xN
First determine uncertainty of each variable in the
form ( xN ± xN)
Use previously established methods, including bias
and precision error
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Propagation of Error
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Propagation of Error
Consider the calculation of electrical power, P = EI:
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