Dr.-Ing.

Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Chapter 1: BJT amplifiers

DC & AC Quantities

dc quantities are identified by capital subscripts such as IC, IE, VC,

and VCE. Small subscripts are used to indicate ac quantities such
as Ic, Ie, Ib, Vc, and Vce

The Linear Amplifier

A linear amplifier provides amplification of a signal without any

distortion so that the output signal is an exact amplified replica of
the input signal.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

r parameter model

To visualize the operation of a transistor in an amplifier

circuit, it is often useful to represent the device by a
model circuit.

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 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

An r-parameter model for a BJT can be simplified as

follows: The effect of the ac base resistance is usually
small enough to neglect, so it can be replaced by a
short. The ac collector resistance is usually big enough
and can be replaced by an open
and the ac emitter resistance is:

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Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

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 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 1

Solution

Ex. 2 (a)

(b)

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Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

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 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The common emitter amplifier (CEA)

The common-emitter (CE) configuration has the emitter as the
common terminal (ground) . CE amplifiers exhibit high voltage
gain and high current gain.

DC Analysis

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Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

AC Analysis
The coupling capacitors (series) block dc and thus prevent the, RL
and Rs from changing the dc bias voltages at the base and
collector. The capacitors ideally appear as shorts to the AC signal
at the signal frequency.

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 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

There is no signal at the emitter because the bypass capacitor

(parallel) effectively shorts the emitter to ground at AC signal. The
figure shows a common-emitter amplifier with voltage-divider
bias and coupling capacitors C1 and C3 on the input and
output and a bypass capacitor, C2, from
emitter to ground.

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 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The output signal is out of phase with the input signal. If the base
current increases, the collector current increases, causing an
increase in the voltage drop across RC which means that the
voltage at the collector decreases (phase inversion).

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 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany
AC Analysis
To analyze the ac signal operation of an amplifier, an ac
equivalent circuit is developed as follows:
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

≅ 𝑰 𝒃 𝜷 𝒂𝒄 𝒓 ′𝒆

Output Resistance
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Voltage Gain

Attenuation is the reduction in signal voltage as it passes through

a circuit (gain is the reciprocal of attenuation).
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The attenuation from the source to the base is:

The overall voltage gain of the amplifier is the voltage gain

from base to collector, Vc / Vb times the reciprocal of the
attenuation, Vb / Vs.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Effect of the Emitter Bypass Capacitor on Voltage Gain

The emitter bypass capacitor C2 provides short to the ac signal
around RE thus keeping the emitter at ac ground. With the
bypass capacitor, the gain of a given amplifier is maximum and
equal to

The value of the bypass capacitor must be large enough so that

its reactance over the frequency range of the amplifier is very
small compared to RE. So, the capacitive reactance, XC, of it
should be at least 10 times smaller than RE at the minimum
frequency for which the amplifier must operate.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Voltage Gain Without the Bypass Capacitor

Without the bypass capacitor, the emitter is no longer at ground.
Instead, RE is seen by the ac signal between the emitter and
ground and effectively adds to in the voltage gain formula

The effect of RE is to decrease the ac voltage gain.

 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

With the Bypass Capacitor Without the Bypass Capacitor

 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 3: Determine the signal voltage at the base of the transistor in

the figure. This circuit has a 10 mV rms, 300 Ω signal source. IE =
3.80 mA. Solution
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 4: Select a minimum value for the emitter bypass capacitor,

C2, in the figure if the amplifier operates with a frequency 200 Hz

Solution
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 5: Calculate the base-to-collector voltage gain of the amplifier

in the figure both without and with an emitter bypass capacitor.

Solution
Without C2,

With C2,
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Effect of a Load on the Voltage Gain

When a resistor, RL, is connected to the output through the C3. RC
is in parallel with RL. Remember, the upper end of RC is
effectively at ac ground.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The total ac collector resistance is

Replacing RC with Rc in the voltage gain expression gives

The loaded gain is lower than the unloaded gain

 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Stability of the Voltage Gain

Stability is a measure of how well an amplifier maintains its

design values over changes in temperature or for a transistor with
a different
Although bypassing RE produces the maximum voltage gain, there
is a stability problem because the ac voltage gain is dependent on

This causes the gain to be unstable over changes in temperature.

However, with RE unbypassed, the gain
is much less dependent on .
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Swamping is a method used to increase the stability of the

voltage gain without reducing it to its minimum value.
Swamping is a compromise between having a bypass capacitor
across RE and having no bypass
capacitor at all.
Both resistors (RE1+ RE2) affect
the dc bias while only RE1
affects the ac voltage gain.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The Effect of Swamping on the Amplifier’s Input Resistance

When the emitter resistance is partially bypassed, the portion of

the resistance that is unbypassed is seen by the ac signal and
results in an increase in the ac input resistance by appearing in
series with
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

With RL

In the case of swamping

 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 6: Calculate the base-to-collector voltage gain of the amplifier

in the figure when a load resistance of 5 kΩ is connected to the
output. The emitter is effectively bypassed and

Solution

Was 152 without the

load resistance in Ex. 5
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 7: Determine the voltage gain of the swamped amplifier in the

figure. Assume that the bypass capacitor has a negligible
reactance for the frequency at which the amplifier is operated.
Assume

Solution
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 8: For the amplifier shown in the figure,

(a) Determine the dc collector voltage.
(b) Determine the ac collector voltage.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

(a)

(b)
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany
Current Gain
the overall current gain of the common-emitter amplifier is
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The common collector amplifier (emitter-follower) (EF)

The input is applied to the base through a coupling capacitor, and

the output is at the emitter and the collector is at ac ground. The
voltage gain of a CC amplifier is approximately 1, and its main
advantages are its high input resistance and current gain. There is
no phase inversion.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Voltage Gain
The capacitive reactances are assumed to be negligible at the
frequency of operation.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Because there is no inversion and because the voltage gain is

approximately 1, the output voltage closely follows the input
voltage in both phase and amplitude; thus the term emitter-
follower.

Input Resistance

The EF is characterized by a high input resistance; because of

this, it can be used as a buffer to minimize loading effects when a
circuit is driving a low-resistance load.
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Output Resistance

Current Gain

Power Gain
The common-collector power gain is the product of the voltage
gain and the current gain.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 9: Determine the total input resistance of the EF in the figure.

Also find the voltage gain, current gain, and power gain. (Bac=175)
Solution
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ap = Av Ai = (0.992)(42.8) = 42,46
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The Darlington Pair

One way to increase input resistance is to use a Darlington pair.
The collectors of two transistors are connected, and the emitter of
the first drives the base of the second.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 10: In the figure, for the common-emitter amplifier, VCC = 12V, RC
=1 KΩ and re = 5 Ω. For the Darlington emitter-follower, R1 = 10 k Ω,
R2 = 22 k Ω, RE = 22 Ω, RL = 8 Ω, VCC = 12 V, and βac= 100 for each
transistor.
(a) Determine the voltage gain of the common-emitter amplifier.
(b) Determine the voltage gain of the Darlington emitter-follower.
(c) Determine the
overall voltage gain
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

(a)
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The common-base amplifier

The common-base (CB) amplifier provides high voltage gain with
a maximum current gain of 1. Since it has a low input
resistance, the CB amplifier is the most appropriate type for
certain applications where sources tend to have very low-
resistance
outputs.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The base is the common terminal. The input signal is capacitively

coupled to the emitter. The output is capacitively coupled from the
collector to a load resistor.
Voltage Gain
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 11: Find the input resistance, voltage gain, current gain, and
power gain for the amplifier in the figure. BDC = 250.
Solution
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

The basic purpose of a multistage arrangement is to increase

the overall voltage gain.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Ex. 12 A certain cascaded amplifier arrangement has the

following voltage gains: Av1 = 10, Av2 = 15, and Av3 = 20. What is
the overall voltage gain? Also express each gain in decibels (dB)
and determine the total voltage gain in dB.
solution
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

EX. 13: For the network of the figure: (a) Determine re, (b) Find Zi, (c)
Calculate Zo, and (d) Determine Av.

=
= 100
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

25 mV 25 mV
3
3 1.03
1.03 1.03

2912.6
1.03

=
= 100
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

EX. 14: For the network of the figure, determine: (a) re, (b) Zi, (c) Zo,
and (d) Av,

= 90
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

25 mV 25 mV
17.7

17.7

= 90

384.2
17.7
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

EX. 15: For the network of the figure,

without CE (unbypassed), determine:
(a) re, (b) Zi, (c) Zo, and (d) Av = =120

25 mV 25 mV
5.8

5.8

= 3.89
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

16 15

5.8

5.8
696 695

379.3
5.8
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

EX. 17: For the network of figure.

(with CE unconnected), determine
(using appropriate approximations): (a)
= 210
re, (b) Zi, (c) Zo, and (d) Av.

25 mV 25 mV
18.9
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

18 17

18.9
18.9

116.4
18.9
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

EXAMPLE 19: For the emitter-

follower network of the figure,
=
determine: (a) re, (b) Zi, (c) Zo, and = 100

(d) Av

b
= 100(12+3300)
= 331.2 kΩ
25 mV 25 mV
= 132.2 kΩ

12 Ω 1
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

EX. 20: For the network of

figure, determine: (a) re, (b) Zi,
(c) Zo and (b) Av.
=
= 200

25 mV 25 mV
10.8
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

=
= 200

10.8 10.8

10.8
545.5

10.8
250
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

EX. 21: For the network of figure,

determine: (a) re, and (b) Zi.

=
= 140

25 mV 25 mV
9.5

9.5

1.33 kΩ
1.32 kΩ
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

EX. 22: Calculate the dc bias voltages

and currents for the
Darlington configuration of the figure.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

Sheet 1
1. Determine the following values for the amplifier in the figure.
(a) Rin(base) (b) Rin(tot) (c) Av (d) Connect a bypass capacitor across RE and
then obtain Av (e) Connect a 10 kΩ load resistor to the output and then
obtain Av .
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

2. Determine the following dc values for the amplifier in the figure.

(a) IE (b) VE (c) VB (d) IC (e) VC (f) VCE
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

3. If a load resistance of 600 Ω is placed on the output of the amplifier in

the figure, what are the maximum and minimum gains?
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

4. For the network of the figure:

a. Determine Zi and Zo.
b. Find Av.

=
= 60

5. For the network of the figure:

a. Calculate IB, IC, and re.
b. Determine Zi and Zo. =
= 100
c. Calculate Av.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

6. For the network of the figure:

a. Determine re.
b. Calculate Zi and Zo.
c. Find Av. = 100

7. For the network of the figure:

= 180
a. Determine re.
b. Calculate VB and VC.
c. Determine Zi and Av.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

8. For the network of the figure:

a. Determine re.
b. Find Zi and Zo.
= = 140
c. Calculate Av.

9. For the network of the figure,

= 120
determine RE and RB if Av = 10 and
re = 3.8 Ω.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

10. For the network of the figure:

a. Determine re. b. Calculate VB,
VCE, and VCB. c. Determine Zi and
Zo. d. Calculate Av. = 200

11. For the network of the

figure:
= 120
a. Determine re.
b. Calculate Av.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

12. For the network of the

figure, determine: (a) re, and
(b) Zi.

= = 80

= 90 13. For the network of the figure,

determine VCC for a voltage gain
of Av = 160.
 Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Said, PhD in Electrical Engineering, Paderborn University, Germany

14. Determine VCC for the network

of the figure if Av = 160.

= = 110

15. For the emitter-follower

network of the figure, determine:
(a) re, (b) Zi, (c) Zo, and (d) Av