Chapter 2
TISSUE BIOMECHANICS
STRESS & STRAIN
• Stress:-Force applied per unit area
• Strain:-Measure of deformation of material
• Types of Stress:-
1. Tensile
2. Compressive
3. Shear
Stress-Strain Curve
ultimate
tensile
strength 3 necking
UTS
E
Slope=
Strain
yield Hardening Fracture
strength
y 5
2
Elastic region
Stress (F/A)
Plastic slope=Young’s(elastic) modulus
Region
yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
Region
fracture
4
1
Regions in Stress-Strain Curve
• Elastic Region:-
The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded
The strain is linearly proportional to the stress in
this region.
• Yield Point:-
A point at which permanent deformation occurs.
• Plastic Region:-
If the material is loaded beyond the yield
strength, the material will not return to its
original shape after unloading.
It will have some permanent deformation.
• Strain Hardening:-
Raising the yield strength by permanently
straining the material is called Strain Hardening.
• Tensile Strength:-
It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
• Fracture:-
If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the
stress decreases as necking and non-uniform
deformation occur.
Creep
Permanent and time dependant deformation
of material at constant stress .
Stress Relaxation
• Decrease in stress under constant strain.
• Contains recoverable plastic and elastic
deformation.
• Eg:- Relaxation of bone cement stress in total
joint replacement.
BONE: Structure & Composition
• Major part of skeleton
• Dense connective tissue
• Functions of bone:-
Long Bones
• e.g. femur, tibia
• 1 long dimension
• larger and stronger
in lower extremity
than upper extremity
– have more weight to
support
Short Bones
• e.g. carpals and
tarsals
• designed for
strength not mobility
Flat Bones
• e.g. skull, ribs,
scapula
• usually provide
protection
Irregular Bones
• e.g. vertebrae
• provide protection,
support
Structure of long bone
Mechanical Properties
• Relatively hard
• Lightweight
• Composite material
• High compressive strength
• Poor tensile strength
• Very low shear stress strength
Mechanical loading of bone
Bone Tissue Characteristics
Stress-Strain Curve
Stress = Force/Area Strain = Change in Length/Angle
Elastic Biomaterials (Bone)
•Elastic/Plastic characteristics Load/deformation curves
Brittle material fails before
elastic
permanent deformation
limit
Ductile material deforms
ductile material
load
greatly before failure
brittle material
Bone exhibits both properties
bone
deformation (length)
Anisotropic Property
• Behavior of bone is dependent on direction of
load applied.
Bone Anisotropy
trabecular
tension
compression
cortical
shear
tension
compression
0 50 100 150 200
Maximum Stress (MPa)
Viscoelastic Property
• Responds differently when it receives loads in
different speeds.
fracture
Load
t
fas
fracture
slow
deformation
Fracture Mechanics
• Fracture:-disruption in the continuity of a
bone.
• Two types:-
1. Simple
2. Compound
Tendon & Ligament
Tendon & Ligament
• Tendons:-
Contains collagen fibrils, proteoglycan matrix
and fibroblasts.
Carry tensile forces from muscle to bone.
• Ligaments:-
Collagen fibrils are slightly less in volume.
Higher percentage of proteoglycan matrix than
tendon.
Difference in Tendon & Ligament
Mechanical Properties
• Stress-Strain curve
• Viscoelasticity:-
Time dependent mechanical behaviour.
Two main characteristics:
a) Creep
b) Stress Relaxation
Factors Affecting Mechanical
Properties of Tendons and
Ligaments
• Age
• Immobilization
• Diseases
SKIN-Anatomy
• Three layers: Epidermis, Dermis and
Hypodermis
• Arrector pili muscle:- When it contracts it
causes hair to stand erect.
• Hair follicle:- Nourishes hair.
• Langerhan cells:- Attached to antigen that
invade damaged skin
• Pacinian corpuscle:- Responds to pressure and
vibration
• Sebaceous gland:- Coats and protects hair
shaft from becoming brittle.
• Sweat gland:- Helps in temperature regulation
by producing sweat.
• Stratum corneum:- Outermost layer of
epidermis comprised of dead skin cells.
Functions
• Protection
• Sensation
• Temperature Regulation
• Immunity
• Permits growth & movement
• Excretion
• Endocrine function
Mechanical Properties of Skin
• Depends on the nature and organization of:
Dermal collagen and elastic fibres network
• Water, proteins and macromolecule are
embedded in the extracellular matrix with less
contribution by epidermis and stratum corneum
• Non-homogenous
• Anisotropic
• Non-linear viscoelastic
Dermal Components
• Collagen:-
High tensile strength (1.5-3.5 MPa)
Low extensibility
High stiffness (Young’s modulus of 0.7 to 1 Gpa in
linear region)
• Elastin:-
Less stiff than collagen
• Ground Substance:-
Viscoelastic behavior of dermis
Skin Stretching Mechanism
• Upon stretching,
collagen fibres
straightens and realign
parallel to one another
• Skin has non-linear
viscoelastic properties
• Skin exhibit hysteresis
loop effect with energy
loss when deformation
occurs
• Creep is a skin mechanical failure-the result of
water molecules displacement from collagen
fibres network
Anisotropy & Viscoelasticity
• Anisotropy:- Direction of extensibility
characterized by Langer’s lines. Elastin and
collagen fibres are more stretched along
Langer’s lines.
• Viscoelasticity:- Due to difference in collagen
types self assembly i.e. orientation of collagen
fibers, fiber length, volume and fraction of
fibers.
