Jimma Institute of Technology

Department of Hydraulic and Water

Resources Engineering

Basic Hydraulics (part II)

Andualem S.
Jan, 2015
 Chapter-One

Introduction to
Open Channel Flow
 Chapter-One
Over View
Definition
Classification of flow types(revision)
Properties of open channels
 Best hydraulic sections
Application of principles
 Bernoulli’s
principle(energy equation)
 Momentum equation

Introduction to RVF and GVF

 Hydraulic Jump
 Introduction
Definition
Open channel flow:
flow of water(fluid) in which there is an
interface between water and air.
In this type of flow the main driving
force(source of energy) is gravity
Any type of flow is either open channel
flow or pipe flow.
Introduction---
Open channel flow Vs pipe flow.
Types of channels
Artificial channels
 man-made
 Regular in shape and prismatic
 irrigation canals, navigation canals,
spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage
ditches.
 Constructed of concrete, steel and earth
 approximately uniform roughness
Natural channels
 irregularand non prismatic
 roughness: f( distance and elevation)
 Mainly earth material
 Analysis of flow in channels is more
complicated than natural channels.
Summary
Geometric properties

The commonly used are:

Depth (y)
Stage (z)
Area (A)
Wetted perimeter (P)
Surface width (B)
Bottom width (b)
Hydraulic radius (R):R = A/P
Most common shapes of prismatic channels

11
 Geometric relationships
Laminar & Turbulent flow

(for pipe flow)

(for open channel)

Where:
D:diameter of pipe
R: hydraulic radius=P/A
P: wetted perimeter
A: cross sectional area
U: velocity of flow
μ: dynamic viscosity
Re: Reynold’s number
Critical, super critical and sub critical
Froude number, Fr
Where:
V: velocity of flow
Dm= y: depth of flow
g: gravitational acceleration (m3/s)

Open channel flow

Sub-critical flow Critical flow Super critical flow

Fr<1 Fr=1 Fr>1

 Rapidly varied flow (RVF)
Vs
Gradually varied flow (GVF)

Open Channel Flow

Unsteady Steady

Varied Uniform Varied

Gradually Gradually

Rapidly Rapidly
Uniform flow equations
Manning’s formula:
Where:
V: velocity of flow (m/s)
R: hydraulic radius (m)
So: bed slope(m/m)
n: Manning’s coefficient (unit less)
Q: discharge (m3/s)
P: wetted perimeter(m)
A: cross sectional area(m2)
Chezy’s equation:

Where:
V: velocity (m/s)
C: Chezy’s constant (unit less)
R: hydraulic radius (m)
So: bed slope
n: Manning’s coefficient (unit less)
Q: discharge (m3/s)
A: cross sectional area (m2)
Uniform flow computation
Manning’s formula
Two computations:
 Discharge from given depth
 Depth from given discharge

uniform flow can only occur in

channels of constant cross-section
(prismatic channels)
In steady uniform flow the flow depth is
know as normal depth.
Take dynamic viscosity of water= 1.14x10-3 N.s/m2
Solution: Given: m=x=2, h=2m, b=5m, n=0.015, So=0.001
μ=1.14x10-3N.s/m2

 Calculate the cross sectional properties:

A=

P=

i) discharge:
ii) Mean velocity, V:
Use continuity equation: Q=AV

iii) Reynold’s number, Re:

 Therefore, the flow is highly turbulent!

Q: Redo the example using Chezy’s equation and
compare the results.
Example#2(depth from given discharge)
 This equation can be solved in two ways: by trial and
error or by graphical technique
 Therefore, the normal depth for Q=20m3/s is: y=1.7m
 Most Efficient (Economical) sections
Most economical section is called the best
hydraulic section or most efficient
section as the discharge, passing through a
given cross-sectional area A, slope of the
bed S0 and given resistance coefficient, is
maximum.
Hence the discharge Q will be maximum
when the wetted perimeter P is minimum.
A 1
Q AV  AC Rh Se  AC Se  const. *
P P
27
 Economical Rectangular Channel

A  B  D, P  2D  B
A
P2D 
D
dP
P should be minimum for a given area; 0
dD
dP  A  A BD B B
2 2   0  2    2  D
dD D  D2 D2 D 2

A BD 2 D D 2 D 2 D
Rh     Rh 
P B2 D 2 D2 D 4 D 2

So, the rectangular channel will be most economical when

either: the depth of the flow is half the width, or
the hydraulic radius is half the depth of flow. 28
Economical Trapezoidal Channel
A(BnD )D or A
B  nD
D

PB2 D 1n 2
A
P (  nD )  2 D 1n 2
D

dP dP A 2 1n 2 
A
0   2  n 2 1n 2  0 2
n
dD dD D D

(BnD)D B2nD B2nD

2 1n 2   n  D 1n 2 
D2 D 2
P  B  B  2n D  2 ( B  n D)

A ( BnD)D D
Rh   Rh 
P 2(BnD) 2 29
The best side slope for Trapezoidal section

1
when n    60
3

B2nD
D 1n 2  
2

B  2 D ( 1  n2  n )
A
PB B2nD2(BnD)  B  nD
D

A
 n D  2 D ( 1  n 2  n)
D
A
D2 
2 1 n2  n
30
Now, from equations: P  2( B  n D)
A
A P2
B   nD D
D
A 2
squaring both sides P  4 ( )  4 A ( 2 1  n 2  n)
2
D
1
dP dP 
2 2
 0 2P  4 A [(1  n ) * ( 2n)  1]
dn dn
2n 1
1 1 3
2  4n 1n 
2 2 n
3 n   tan     60
1 n 1

The best side slope is at 60o to the horizontal, i.e.; of all

trapezoidal sections a half hexagon is most economical.
However, because of constructional difficulties, it may
not be practical to adopt the most economical side
31
slopes
 Circular section
In the case of circular channels, the area of the flow cannot be
maintained constant. Indeed, the cross-sectional area A and the
wetted perimeter P both do not depend on D but they depend on
the angle.
Referring to the figure shown, we
can determine the wetted
perimeter P and the area of flow
A as follows:
d 2 d 2
A  sin2
4 8

P  2 r   d
Thus in case of circular channels, for most economical section, two
separate conditions are obtained:
1. Condition for maximum discharge, and
32
2. Condition for maximum velocity.
 1. Condition for Maximum Discharge for Circular Section:

A 3  A 3 dQ
Q  AV  A C Rh S  C S Q2  C 2 S   0
P  P d

(Using the Chezy’s formula)   154 D  0.95 d

(Using Manning’s formula)   151 D  0.94 d

2. Condition for Maximum Velocity for Circular Section:

A 2  A
2 dV
V C Rh S  C S V C S  0
P  P d

  128.75 D  0.81 d

33
Variation of flow and velocity with depth in circular pipes

34
APPLICATIONS OF PRINCIPLES

Continuity(reading assignment)
Energy (Bernoulli’s)
Momentum
6.4 Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow
The total energy of a flowing liquid per unit weight is given by:

V2
Total Energy  Z  y 
2g

Specific energy (Es): defined as energy per unit weight of

the liquid measured from the channel bed as datum. It is a very
useful concept in the study of open channel flow.

V 2

Especific  y 
2g 36
 Ep = potential energy of flow = y
V2
Es  y   E p  Ek
2g V2
Ek = kinetic energy of flow =
2g

Q2
Es  y  Valid for any cross section
2 g A2

Specific Energy Curve:

It is defined as the
curve which shows the
variation of specific
energy (Es ) with depth
of flow y.

37
 Specific Energy Curve (Rectangular channel)
Consider a rectangular channel in which a constant discharge

q = discharge per unit width =

Q = constant ( since Q and B are
constants) B
Q Q q q2
V    Es  y   E p  Ek
A B y y 2g y 2

Ep

EK
EP Es

yc

38
 Referring to the energy curve, the following features can be observed:

1. The depth of flow at point C is referred to as critical depth, yc.

(It is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the specific energy is
minimum, Emin  yc The flow that corresponds to this point is called
critical flow (Fr = 1.0).
2. For values of Es greater than Emin , there are two corresponding depths.
One depth is greater than the critical depth and the other is smaller
' then
the critical depth, for example;
E s1  y1 and y1
These two depths for a given specific energy are called the alternate depths.
3. If the flow depth y  yc the flow is said to be sub-critical (Fr < 1.0).
In this case Es increases as y increases.

4. If the flow depth y  yc the flow is said to be super-critical (Fr > 1.0).

In this case Es decreases as y increases.

39
 Sub-critical, critical, and supercritical flow

The criterion used in this classification is what is known by Froude

number, Fr, which is the measure of the relative effects of inertia
forces to gravity force:
T

V
Fr 
g Dh of flow of water,
V = mean velocity

T
Dh = hydraulic depth(Wetted
Area of Flow of the channel
Area) A
Dh  
Water Surface Width T

Fr Flow
Fr < 1 Sub-critical
1 = Fr Critical
40
Fr >1 Supercritical
Critical depth, yc for rectangular channel
Critical depth, yc , is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at
which the specific energy is minimum, Emin,
The mathematical expression for critical depth is obtained by
differentiating energy equation with respect to y and equating the
q2 result to zero;
Es  y 
2g y2

dE d q2 q2  2
0  (y  ) 1 ( 3 )0
dy dy 2g y 2
2g y
1
q 2
q 2 q2
 3

1 0  3
y  yc  
 g
3
gy g 
41
Critical velocity, Vc for rectangular channel

q 2

y 
3
c
, q
g Vc 
yc
Q Q q
V  
A B y y

Vc yc
2 2

OR yc 
3
 Vc  g  yc
g

Vc
 1  Fr
g  yc
42
Minimum Specific Energy in terms of critical depth

q2
E min  yc 
2 g yc2 yc
E min  yc 
q 2
2
y 
3
c
g

3 yc 2 E min
E min  OR yc 
2 3

43
 Critical depth, yc , for Non- Rectangular Channels
dEs d Q2 2 Q 2 dA
 0  ( y )1 ( )0
dy dy 2g A 2
2 g A dy
3

(constant discharge is assumed)

2
OR 1 
Q dA
3
( )0
g A dy
dA/dy = the rate of increase of area with respect to y = T (top
width). condition must be satisfied for the flow
Q 2T Q2 A3
1  0  at the critical depth for any cross
gA 3
g T section type.

A Q2
Recalling that Dh    A2 Dh
T g
V2 Dh
The equation may also be written in terms of velocity  
2g 2
 The velocity head is equal to one-half the hydraulic
depth for critical flow. 44
 Q2 A This equation represents
E s  y  E s  y 
2 g A2 2 T the critical state

1 A The general equation for the specific energy in

OR E c  yc  ( )
2 T critical state applicable to channels of all shapes.

Rectangular section Trapezoidal section

( 3B  5n yc ) yc
3 yc Ec 
Ec  2 ( B  2 n yc )
2

Circular section Triangle section

5
Ec  yc
d d ( 2  sin 2 ) 4
Ec  ( 1  cos ) 
2 16 sin  46
 Constant Specific Energy
The specific energy was varied and the discharge was assumed to
be constant. Let us now consider the case in which the specific
energy is kept constant and the discharge Q is varied.
Q2
E s  y  Q A 2 g ( Es  y )
2g A 2

Q2  A2 (2 g ) ( Es  y )  2 gA2 Es  2 gA2 y

dQ
The discharge will maximum if dy  0

dQ dA  dA 2 
Q  2 g E s ( 2 A )  2 g ( 2 y A  A )
dy dy  dy 

dA/dy = T  2 g Es ( 2 AT )2 g ( 2 yAT )2 gA 0 2

47
 4 E sT  4 yT  2 A  0

2T ( Es  y )  A 
A
Es  y 
2T

Q2
but E s  y 
2 g A2

Q2 A
y  y 
2g A 2
2T

Q2 A3

g T
Thus for a given specific energy, the discharge in a given
channel is maximum when the flow is in the critical state. In
other words the depth corresponding to the maximum discharge is
48
the critical depth.
Example (estimating discharge under sluice gate)
Sample sluice gates
II) Momentum principle:
 applied when it’s not possible to apply the
energy principle.
 One of the major situations where momentum
principle is applied is during analysis of
rapidly varied flow (RVF).
 In RVF there is an excess amount of energy
loss. Therefore, it is not possible to analyze
such type of flow using energy equation.
example: Hydraulic Jump.
Hydraulic Jump
 Hydraulic Jump
 Just it’s a flow in which the depth of flow
changes in short length of the channel
or the change in depth is abrupt. Occurs
when super-critical flow is changed into
sub-critical flow.
 Some of the locations of hydraulic jump:
 atfoot of spillway
 downstream of a sluice gate etc

Application: energy dissipating device

to prevent bed erosion.
Hydraulic jump at foot of spillway
Hydraulic jump at foot of spillway
Hydraulic jump at d/s of sluice gate
Hydraulic jump analysis
 Assumptions
Rectangular channel with horizontal bottom slope
Before and after the hydraulic jump the velocity
distributions are uniform and
The pressure distribution over the cross sections
are hydrostatic
1
Energy lost in hydraulic jump

(head loss in m due to the jump )

(power dissipated due to the jump)

 Some of the parameters used in hydraulic
jump analysis includes:
 Pre-jump height(Y )
1
 Post-jump height(Y )
2
 Height of jump (H)=Y -Y
2 1
 Length of jump (L)=5H
 Energy lost in the jump (E )
L

= (Y2-Y1)3/(4Y1Y2)
where: Y1 and Y2 are called conjugate depths.

 The value of length and height of the jump are

approximate values, not exact!
Example (hydraulic jump)

c) Estimate the height of the hydraulic jump

d) What is the length of the jump produced?
 Look the figure on previous slide

hL=(ys-yi)3/4yiys= (2.5-0.443)3/4*2.5*0.443=1.96m
c) Height of jump: H=ys- yi=2.5-0.443=2.06m
d) Length of the jump: Lj=5H=5*2.06=10.29m