Chapter-2

Fluid Statics
2. Motivation
Many fluid problems do not involve motion. They
concern the pressure distribution in a static fluid
and its effect on solid surfaces and on floating and
submerged bodies. When the fluid velocity is zero,
denoted as the hydrostatic condition, the pressure
variation is due only to the weight of the fluid.
Assuming a known fluid in a given gravity field, the
pressure may easily be calculated by integration.
Continued………….
Important applications in this chapter are (1) pressure
distribution in the atmosphere and the oceans, (2) the
design of manometer pressure instruments, (3) forces
on submerged flat and curved surfaces, (4) buoyancy
on a submerged body, and (5) the behavior of floating
bodies. The last two result in Archimedes’ principles.
2.1 Introduction
A fluid at rest is characterized by a substance of
relative motion between adjacent or neighboring fluid
layers. Under such a conditions, the velocity gradient,
du/dy, has a zero value which results in a zero shear
stress. Thus the viscosity of a fluid has no effect on
fluids at rest, and, therefore, the ideal and real fluids
behave exactly in a similar manner.
Continued ……………………………..
There are two type of forces to be considered:
i) Due to gravity, and
ii) Due to static pressure.
There are no tangential or frictional forces as the shear
stress is zero in the absence of any relative motion.
2.2 General Equation For Variation Of Pressure In A Static Fluid

Let us consider a fluid element of size dx dy and dz of

the following figure.
Let the static pressure at the centre of the element 0
defined by the coordinates (x,y,z), be p. The fluid
element is in equilibrium under the influence the
following five forces:
Continued……………………………..

Fig. 2.1 pressure forces on various area of a fluid with differential sides of dx, dy, and
dz.
Continued…………

Let us consider a fluid element of size dy, dz and unit

length in the x direction.
Let the static pressure at the center of the element o
defined by the coordinates (y, z), be p.
The fluid element is in equilibrium under the influence of
the following five forces:
Continued…………

For static equilibrium, summation of forces in the y

and z directions must be zero, thus in the y-direction,
ΣFy=0 (there being no acceleration) therefore:

P y p y
(P  )z  ( p  )z  0
y 2 y 2
Assume x  1 in x direction which simplifies to :
p
 0          2 . 1
y
Continued…………
In the Z-direction, Σ Fz=0; therefore,

P z p z
(P  )y  ( p  )y  yz *   0
z 2 z 2
which reduces to :
p
            2.2
z
Continued………..

According to equations (2.1) and (2.2), it is evident that the

static pressure p is a function of z only.
Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids
Incompressible fluid: Liquids are incompressible
i.e. their density is assumed to be constant:

P2  P1   g ( z 2  z1 )      2.3
When we have a liquid with a free surface the pressure P at any depth below the
free surface is:

Po is the pressure at the

P  gh  Po free surface (Po=Patm)
By using gage pressures we can simply write:

P  gh
11/16/2023 12
 Continued……………………………
Equation 2.3 can be rewrite as follow :
p2 p
 z 2  1  z1        2.4
 

The expression ( ) represents the piezometric

head and equation (2.4) shows that for static fluid
the piezometric head is constant throughout the
fluid.
The result of integration of equation(2.2) may also
be written as
P  Z  A        2.5

11/16/2023 13
 Continued……………………………

Where: A is a constant. At the free surface of the liquid

the pressure is atmospheric, and hence the static
pressure variation is zero gauge. Using figure below, at z
= H, p=0.

Substituting this in equation (2.5), A= H, and the
equation of pressure variation is

p = (H-z)
If the distances are measured from the free surfaces, the
pressure at a distance h below the free surface will be
p= h----------------------2.6

11/16/2023 14
Continued……………………………

Fig. 2.2. Graphical representation of piezometric head Eq.

(2.4)
11/16/2023 15
Example:2.1
The barometric pressure at sea level is 760 mm
of mercury while that on a mountain top is
735mm, if the specific weight of air is assumed
constant at 11.77 N/m3, what is the elevation of
the mountain top?
Answer 283.0 m
Continued……………………………

Sol. It is a known fact that as the elevation above the sea

level increases, the atmospheric pressure decreases.
Assuming the specific weight of the air as constant, one can
write the following equation for pressure p at any elevation
h above the sea level.

Where: Po = standard atmospheric pressure, i.e. pressure at

the mean sea level, and Y0 = specific weight of air.
 Continued……………………………

The elevation of a place is given by

Po = (760/1000)x 13.6 x 9810 = 101.3 x 102 N/m2 = 101.3 kN/m2

P = (735/1000) x 13.6 x 9810 = 97.7 x 102 N/m2 = 97.7k N/m2

Therefore,
Example 2.2

An open tank contains water for a depth of 2m

and above it oil for a depth of 1m. If the oil has a
specific gravity of 0.8m, find the pressure
intensity (a) at the interface of two liquids; and
(b) at the bottom of the tank.
Take specific weight of oil 7848.0N/m3
answer (a)7848N/m2 (b)27468 N/m2
Exercise 2.1

A closed tank contains 0.5m of mercury, 2m of

water, 3m of oil of specific gravity 0.6 and there
is air space above the oil. If the gauge pressure
at the bottom of the tank is 196.2 kpa, what is
the pressure of air at the top of the tank.
Answer: 92.2 kN/m2
Equation for Variation of Static Pressure in
inclined surface

Here we show how the above observations for vertical

and horizontal elements of fluids can be generalised
for an element of any orientation.
Continued………

Fig. A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary orientation.

Continued………….
Continued………….
 Pascal’s Laws

Pascals’ laws:
Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a
small volume (point) of a fluid.

In a fluid confined by solid boundaries,

pressure acts perpendicular to the boundary – it
is a normal force.

25
Direction of fluid pressure on boundaries

Furnace duct Pipe or tube

Heat exchanger

Pressure is a Normal Force

(acts perpendicular to surfaces)
It is also called a Surface Force

Dam

26
 Absolute and Gage Pressures
Pressures can be expressed in two different
systems. In the first system, the pressure is
measured above the absolute zero or complete
vacuum, and is called the absolute pressure.
In the second system, the pressure is measured
and expressed as a difference between its absolute
value and the local atmospheric pressure, and is
called the gauge pressure. If the pressure is below
the local atmospheric pressure, it is known as the
negative or vacuum or suction pressure.
Continued……….
The mechanical pressure gauges, such as the Bourdon
gauge, record the gauge pressure whereas the Aneroid
barometer registers the absolute pressure.
 The gauge pressure, absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure are thus related by the following
relationship:
 Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure - Local
atmospheric pressure
Usual pressure gages record gage pressure. To calculate
absolute pressure:
Pabs  Patm  Pgage
Continued………..

29
Continued……………

Fig. 2.3 Hydrostatic-pressure distribution in oceans and

atmospheres.

30
Units for Pressure
Unit Definition or
Relationship
1 pascal (Pa) 1 kg m-1 s-2
1 bar 1 x 105 Pa
1 atmosphere (atm) 101,325 Pa
1 torr 1 / 760 atm
760 mm Hg 1 atm
14.696 pounds per 1 atm
sq. in. (psi)

31
2.3 Pressure Measurement By Manometer

Manometers are devices in which one or more

columns of a liquid are used to determine the
pressure difference between two points.
The Piezometer tube Manometer
U-tube manometer
Inclined-tube manometer

32
The Piezometer Tube Manometer

The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top,

which is attached to the top of a vessel containing
liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to
be measured. An example can be seen in the figure
below. This simple device is known as a Piezometer
tube. As the tube is open to the atmosphere the
pressure measured is relative to atmospheric so is
gauge pressure.

33
Continued………..

Fig. 2. 3 A simple piezometer tube manometer

34
Continued……………..

35
The “U”-Tube Manometer

Using a “U”-Tube enables the pressure of both

liquids and gases to be measured with the same
instrument. The “U” is connected as in the figure
below and filled with a fluid called the manometric
fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured
should have a mass density less than that of the
manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be
able to mix readily - that is, they must be
immiscible.
Continued……………

Fig. A “U”-Tube manometer

Continued…………
Example 2.3

39
Continued………

40
Continued……
Measurement of Pressure Differences
Apply the basic equation of static fluids to
both legs of manometer, realizing that P2=P3.

P2  Pa   b g ( Z m  Rm )
P3  Pb   b g ( Z m )   a gRm

Pa  Pb  gRm (  a   b )
Measurement Of Pressure Difference Using a “U”-Tube
Manometer.

If the “U”-tube manometer is connected to a

pressurised vessel at two points the pressure difference
between these two points can be measured.
Continued……………

Fig. Pressure difference measurement by the “U”-Tube

manometer
Continued………
Advances to the “U” tube manometer.

The “U”-tube manometer has the disadvantage

that the change in height of the liquid in both
sides must be read. This can be avoided by making
the diameter of one side very large compared to
the other. In this case the side with the large area
moves very little when the small area side move
considerably more.
Continued…….
Continued…….
Continued…………
Inclined Manometer

The sensitivity to pressure change can be

increased further by a greater inclination of the
manometer arm, alternatively the density of the
manometric fluid may be changed.
Continued………
To measure small pressure differences need to magnify Rm
some way.

Pa  Pb  gR1 (  a   b ) sin 
Micro Manometer for Small Pressure Difference

(2.14)

(2.15)

(2.16)

(2.17)

▲ Fig. 2.8

52
Choice Of Manometer

Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to

vessel, no burrs must be present around this joint. Burrs
would alter the flow causing local pressure variations to
affect the measurement.
 Some disadvantages of manometers:
 Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying
pressures - no use at all for fluctuating pressures;
 For the “U” tube manometer two measurements must be
taken simultaneously to get the h value. This may be
avoided by using a tube with a much larger cross-sectional
area on one side of the manometer than the other;
Continued………..
It is often difficult to measure small variations in
pressure - a different manometric fluid may be required -
alternatively a sloping manometer may be employed; It
cannot be used for very large pressures unless several
manometers are connected in series;
For very accurate work the temperature and relationship
between temperature and r must be known; Some
advantages of manometers:
They are very simple.
 No calibration is required - the pressure can be
calculated from first principles
2.4 Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Objects
A common problem in the design of structures
which interact with fluids is the computation of the
hydrostatic force on a plane surface. If we neglect
density changes in the fluid, Eq. (2.6) applies and
the pressure on any submerged surface varies
linearly with depth.
Continued………….

For a plane surface, the linear stress distribution is

exactly analogous to combined bending and
compression of a beam in strength-of-materials
theory. The hydrostatic problem thus reduces to
simple formulas involving the centroid and
moments of inertia of the plate cross-sectional
area.
 Continued……..
We now consider the force acting on a
submerged object due to the hydrostatic
pressure. This is given by

   2.18
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
Figure 2.9 shows a plane panel of arbitrary shape
completely submerged in a liquid. The panel plane
makes an arbitrary angle with the horizontal free
surface, so that the depth varies over the panel
surface. If h is the depth to any element area dA of
the plate, from Eq. (2.6) the pressure there is:
Cont…

Fig. 2.9 Hydrostatic force and center of pressure on an arbitrary

plane surface of area A inclined at an angle below the free surface.
Hydrostatic forces on surfaces

   2.19
Continued………….

The remaining integral is evaluated by noticing from Fig.

2.9 that h= sin and, by definition, the centroidal slant
distance from the surface to the plate is
   2.20

   2.21
Continued……….

The force on one side of any plane submerged

surface in a uniform fluid equals the pressure at
the plate centroid times the plate area,
independent of the shape of the plate or the
angle theta at which it is slanted.
However, to balance the bending-moment
portion of the stress, the resultant force F does
not act through the centroid but below it toward
the high-pressure side. Its line of action passes
through the center of pressure CP of the plate, as
sketched in Fig.2.9.
Continued…….…

To find the coordinates (xCP, yCP), we sum moments of

the elemental force p dA about the centroid and equate
to the moment of the resultant F. To compute yCP, we
equate

 2.22
Continued……………

where again y dA= 0 and Ixx is the area

moment of inertia of the plate area about its
centroidal x axis, computed in the plane of the
plate. Substituting for F gives the result

   2.23
Continued………..
The negative sign in Eq. (2.23) shows that yCP is below
the centroid at a deeper level and, unlike F, depends
upon angle If we move the plate deeper, yCP
approaches the centroid because every term in Eq.
(2.23) remains constant except PCG, which increases.
The determination of xCP is exactly similar:
Continued………….
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces

Fig. 2.10 Centroidal moments of inertia for various cross sections:

(a) rectangle, (b) circle, (c) triangle, and (d) semicircle.
Hydrostatic forces: curved surfaces
Example 2.3

A tank of oil has a right-triangular panel near the

bottom, as in Fig. below. Omitting pa, find the (a)
hydrostatic force and (b) CP on the panel.
 Buoyancy
The same principles used above to compute
hydrostatic forces can be used to calculate the net
pressure force acting on completely submerged or
floating bodies. These laws of buoyancy, the
principles of Archimedes, are that:
1. Archimedes principle : The buoyant force acting on
a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward
through the centroid of the displaced volume.
Continued……………
2. A floating or partially submerged body
displaces its own weight in the fluid in
which it floats (i.e., the vertical upward force
is equal to the body weight).
3. Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced by
a body. FB=r f g V.
continued…………..
 Buoyancy force FB is equal
only to the displaced
volume rfgVdisplaced.
 Three scenarios possible
1. R body<r fluid: Floating
body
2. R body=rfluid: Neutrally
buoyant
3. R body>rfluid: Sinking body
2.5 Stability of submerged and floating bodies

Submerged Body
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if, when
given a slight displacement from the equilibrium
position, the forces thereby created tend to restore
it back to its original position. The forces acting on a
submerged body are the buoyancy force, FB, acting
through the center of buoyancy, denoted by CB, and
the weight of the body, W, acting through the center
of gravity denoted by CG (see Figure 2.13).
 Stability of Immersed Bodies

FIGURE 2.13 Stability for a submerged body.

Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon

relative location of center of gravity G and center of
buoyancy B.
 G below B: stable
 G above B: unstable
 G coincides with B: neutrally stable.
Stability of Floating Bodies

If body is bottom heavy (G

lower than B), it is always
stable.
Floating bodies can be
stable when G is higher than
B due to shift in location of
center buoyancy and
creation of restoring
moment.
Measure of stability is the
metacentric height GM. If
GM>1, ship is stable.
Continued……….

We see from Figure 2.13 that if the CB lies above the

CG a rotation from the equilibrium position creates a
restoring couple which will rotate the body back to
its original position thus, this is a stable equilibrium
situation. The reader will readily verify that when
the CB lies below the CG, the couple that results
from a rotation from the vertical increases the
displacement from the equilibrium position thus,
this is an unstable equilibrium situation.
Partially Submerged Body

The stability problem is more complicated for

floating bodies because as the body rotates the
location of the center of buoyancy may change. To
determine stability in these problems requires that
we determine the location of the metacenter.
Continued………..
This is done for a symmetric body by tilting the body
through a small angle Δθ from its equilibrium position
and calculating the new location of the center of
buoyancy CB’; the point of intersection of a vertical
line drawn upward from CB’ with the line of symmetry
of the floating body is the metacenter, denoted by M
in Figure 2.14, and it is independent of Δθ for small
angles.
Continued…………
If M lies above the CG of the body, we see from Figure
2.14 that rotation of the body leads to a restoring
couple, whereas M lying below the CG leads to a
couple which will increase the displacement.
Continued…………
Thus, the stability of the equilibrium depends on
whether M lies above or below the CG. The directed
distance from CG to M is called the metacentric
height, so equivalently the equilibrium is stable if this
vector is positive and unstable if it is negative;
stability increases as the metacentric height
increases. For geometrically complex bodies, such as
ships, the computation of the metacenter can be
quite complicated.
Continued…………..

FIGURE 2.14 Stability for a partially submerged body.

Summary
Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids
Pressure in a continuously distributed
uniform static fluid varies only with
vertical distance and is independent of the
shape of the container. The pressure is the
same at all points on a given horizontal
plane in the fluid. The pressure increases
with depth in the fluid.
Cont…

 is a length called the pressure head of the fluid.

The quantity p/
Cont…
Cont…

Fig. Hydrostatic-pressure distribution in oceans and atmospheres.

Cont…

Fig. Evaluating pressure changes through a column of multiple fluids.

Continued……………

Fig. Simple open manometer for measuring pA relative to atmospheric

pressure.

87
Continued……………….

Fig. A complicated multiple fluid manometer to relate pA to pB. This system is not
especially practical but makes a good homework or examination problem.

88
Hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces
Cont…
Then the total hydrostatic force on one side
Continued……….