Unit 2

PART-1: Electronics
Unit-2-Electronics
Overview of Semiconductors, Diodes and Transistors, Introduction to
JFET and MOSFET. Construction and working of power devices-SCR,
BJT, MOSFET, IGBT -Switching Characteristics of SCR- Types of
power converters- Natural and force commutation, Linear voltage
Regulator, SMPS
Realize the logic expression using basic logic gates, Combinational
logic design-Sum of Product form (SOP) and Product of Sum (POS)
form, Minterm and Maxterm, Karnaugh Map (K-Map) representation of
logical functions, Two variables K-Map, Three variables K-Map, Four
variables K-Map. Introduction to FPGA.
 Types of Materials
Insulators
• An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical
current under normal conditions.
• Rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.

Conductors
• A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical
current. Most metals are good conductors.
• Copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al)

Semiconductors
• A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and
insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current.
• Silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge)
PN Diode – Forward Bias
PN Diode – Reverse Bias
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APPLICATIONS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE
RECTIFIERS, CLIPPERS, CLAMPERS ect..
RECTIFIERS-Rectifier is defined as an electronic device used for
converting ac voltage into dc voltage
Half-wave Rectifier
It converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using only one half
of the applied ac voltage. The rectifying diode conducts during one half
of the ac cycle only. Figure shows the basic circuit and waveforms of a
half wave rectifier.

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Bipolar Junction Transistor
 Uses of BJT
 The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is used in logic circuits.
 The BJT is used as an oscillator.
 It is used as an amplifier.
 It is used as a multivibrator.
 For wave shaping, it is used in clipping circuits.
 Used as a detector or demodulator.
 It is also used as a modulator.
 Used in timer and time delay circuits.
 It is used in electronics switch.
 It is used in switching circuits.
 BJT Configurations
• As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are
basically three possible ways to connect it within an electronic
circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and
output.
• Common Base Configuration (CB) – has Voltage Gain but no
Current Gain.
• Common Emitter Configuration (CE) – has both Current and
Voltage Gain.
• Common Collector Configuration (CC) – has Current Gain but no
Voltage Gain.
 CE Configuration

• In common emitter
configuration, the emitter
terminal is grounded.
• The input signal is applied
between the base and emitter
terminals while the output
signal is taken between the
collector and emitter
terminals.
• The supply voltage between
base and emitter is denoted by
VBE while the supply voltage
between collector and emitter
is denoted by VCE.
Input Characteristics - CE Configuration
• Due to forward bias, the emitter-base junction
acts as a forward biased diode and due to
reverse bias, the collector-base junction acts as
a reverse biased diode.
• Therefore, the width of the depletion region at
the emitter-base junction is very small
whereas the width of the depletion region at
the collector-base junction is very large.
• If the output voltage VCE applied to the
collector-base junction is further increased,
the depletion region width further increases.
• The base region is lightly doped as compared
to the collector region.
• So the depletion region penetrates more into
the base region and less into the collector
region.
• As a result, the width of the base region
decreases which in turn reduces the input
current (IB) produced in the base region.
Output Characteristics - CE Configuration

• To determine the output

characteristics, the input
current or base current IB is
kept constant at 0μA and the
output voltage VCE is increased
from zero volts to different
voltage levels.
• For each level of output
voltage,
the corresponding output
current (IC) is recorded.
 Output Characteristics - CE Configuration

Saturation Cut - Off Active region

• Both Emitter Base and • In this region both • Base emitter
Base Collector junctions of the junction is forward
junctions of the biased and Base
transistor are
transistor are forward Collector junction
reverse biased.
biased. will be reverse
• Hence transistor in
• In this region high biased in a transistor.
currents flows through
cut off does not • Transistor is used as
the transistor, as both conduct any currents amplifier in this
junctions of the expect for small region.
transistor are forward reverse saturation
biased and bulk currents that flow
resistance offered is across junctions.
very much less. • Transistor in cut-off
• Transistor in saturation region is considered
region is considered as as off state in digital
on state in digital logic. logic.
CB Configuration
 CB Configuration Characteristics
Input Characteristics Input Characteristics
• When the output voltage
(VCB) is increased from zero
volts to a certain voltage
level (8 volts), the emitter
current flow will be increased
which in turn reduces the
depletion region width at
emitter-base junction.
• As a result, the cut in voltage
will be reduced. Therefore,
the curves shifted towards
the left side for higher values
of output voltage VCB.
Current Gain (α) = IC/IE
 CB Characteristics
Output Characteristics Output Characteristics
• From the above characteristics, we
can see that for a constant input
current IE, when the output
voltage VCB is increased, the output
current IC remains constant.
• At saturation region, both emitter-
base junction JE and collector-base
junction JC are forward biased.
• From the above graph, we can see
that a sudden increase in the
collector current when the output
voltage VCB makes the collector-
base junction JC forward biased.
 Field Effect Transistor (FET)

• Field effect transistors (FETs) are usually termed as unipolar

transistors because these FETs operations are involved with
single-carrier type.
• Electric field – to control current flow.
Symbol
• It has 3 terminals.

– Source (S)

– Drain (D)

– Gate (G)
FET - Types
 JFET Construction & Symbol

n-channel JFET p-channel JFET

 JFET Working

There are 3 basic operating conditions of JFET: (operates

only in reverse bias)

(i) Vgs = 0, Vds = +Ve ( Vds increasing in positive, which is

less than pinch off voltage)

(ii) Vgs < 0, Vds = 0 ( No operation)

(iii) Vgs < 0, Vds = +Ve

(i) When Vgs=0 , Vds = +Ve (Less than Vp)

• When a voltage VDS is applied between

drain and source terminals and voltage
on the gate is zero, the two pn junctions
at the sides of the bar establish depletion
layers.
• The electrons will flow from source to
drain through a channel between the
depletion layers.
• The size of the depletion layers
determines the width of the channel and
hence current conduction through the
bar.
When Vds = Vp (at Vgs = 0)

 For larger value of Vds, the depletion

layer becomes wider, causing the resistance
of the channel increases.
 When Vds = Vp, the Id current becomes
constant.
 It is maximum drain current, also called
Idss.
(ii) When Vgs<0, Vds=0

 When Vgs<0, Vds=0, it leads to

reverse bias gate to channel.
 Width of the depletion layer
increases, leads to reduce the drain
current in the device.
(iii) When Vgs<0, Vds = +Ve
• For negative value of Vgs, the gate to channel
junction is reverse biased even for Vds=0.
• Then the resistance of the channel is higher,
leads to reduce the Id current value.
• When Vgs<0, Vds=+Ve, where Id current starts
to reduce.
• When Vgs=Vp, the device reach cut-off region.

• Id constant – saturation region.

• Id depends on Vds – ohmic region

 COMPARISON BETWEEN BJT AND JFET
BJT JFET
Bipolar device (current condition, by both Unipolar device (current conduction is only
types of carriers, i.e. majority and minority- due to one type of majority carrier either
electrons and hole). electron or hole).
The operation depends on the injection of The operation depends on the control of a
minority carries across a forward biased junction depletion width under reverse bias.
junction.
Current controlled device. The base current Voltage controlled device. The gate voltage
controls the output current. controls output current.
High noise level. (current conduction through
Low noise level. ( current conduction is
junctions) through n-channel or p-channel and no
junction crossing)
Low input impedance (due to forward bias at High input impedance (due to reverse bias).
input side).
Gain is characterized by voltage gain. Gain is characterised by transconductance.
Low thermal stability. (positive temperature Better thermal stability.(NTC at high current
coefficient at high current levels lead to levels prevent thermal breakdown)
thermal breakdown)
Cheaper Relatively costly
Types of MOSFETS
 P-channel
Enhancement Mode Transistor
 P-channel
Depletion Mode Transistor
 Enhancement MOSFET
• MOSFETs with enhancement modes can be switched on by
powering the gate either higher than the source voltage for NMOS
or lower than the source voltage for the PMOS.
• In most circuits, this means that pulling a MOSFET gate voltage into
the leakage boost mode becomes ON.
• For N-type discharging devices, the threshold voltage could be
about -3 V, so it could be stopped by dragging the 3 V negative gate
(leakage by comparison is more positive than the NMOS source).
• In PMOS, polarities are reversed.
• The mode can be determined by the voltage threshold sign (gate
voltage versus source voltage at the point where only a layer
inversion is formed in the channel):
• For a N-type FET, modulation devices have positive and depleted
thresholds – modulated devices have negative thresholds;
• For a P-type FET, positive mode to improve negative mode,
depletion.
 Depletion type MOSFET

• Junction-effect junction transistors are the depletion mode because

the gate junction would transmit the bias if the gate was taken more
than a bit from the source to the drain voltage.
• Such devices are used in gallium-arsenide and germanium chips, where
it is difficult to make an oxide isolator.
• Figure describes the construction of MOSFET type of exhaustion. Also
note the MOSFET circuit type N exhaust channel symbol.
• Due to its construction, it offers very high entry strength
(approximately 1010 to 1015). Significant current flows for VDS data at
0 volts VGS.
• When the gate (ie, a capacitor plate) is made positive, the channel (i.e.,
the other capacitor plate) will have a positive charge induced therein.
• This will lead to the depletion of the major bearers (ie electrons) and
therefore to the reduction in conductivity.
n-Channel MOSFET
 SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)

• Most commonly used device.

• Characteristics of SCR is similar as that of THYRATRON
TUBE.
• Construction is similar to TRANSISTOR family.
• The name ‘THYRISTOR’ derived from THYRatron and
transISTOR

SRM UNIVERSITY 42
 or

30 – 50 μm

SRM UNIVERSITY 43
 Modes of operation
Reverse Blocking Mode Forward Blocking Mode

Forward Conduction Mode

Static Characteristics of SCR
Switching Characteristics of SCR
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1-AC to DC Converters
1A-Diode Rectifiers: This rectifier circuit changes applied ac input voltage into a fixed dc
voltage. Either a single-phase or three-phase ac signal is applied at the input. These are
mainly used in electric traction and in electrochemical processes like electroplating along
with in battery charging and power supply. These are also used in welding and UPS related
services.
1B-Phase Controlled Rectifiers: Unlike diode rectifiers, phase-controlled rectifiers are
designed to convert a fixed value of ac signal voltage into a variable dc voltage. Here line
voltage operates the rectifier hence these are sometimes known as line commutated ac to
dc converters. Similar to diode rectifiers, here also the applied ac signal can be a single-
phase or three-phase ac signal. Its major applications are in dc drives, HVDC systems,
compensators, metallurgical and chemical industries as well as in excitation systems for
synchronous machines.
2-DC to DC Converters
The converters that convert the dc signal of fixed frequency present at the input into a
variable dc signal at the output are also known as choppers. Here the achieved output dc
voltage may have a different amplitude than the source voltage. Generally, power
transistors, MOSFETs, and thyristors are the semiconductor devices used for their
fabrication. The output is controlled by a low power signal that controls these
semiconductor devices from a control unit.

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Here forced commutation is required to turn off the semiconductor device. Generally, in low
power circuits power transistors are used while in high power circuits thyristors are used.
Choppers are classified on the basis of the type of commutation applied to them and on the
basis of the direction of power flow. Some major uses of choppers are in dc drives, SMPS,
subway cars, electric traction, trolley trucks, vehicles powered by battery, etc.
3-DC to AC Converters
The devices that are designed to convert the dc signal into ac signal are known as inverters.
The applied input is a fixed dc voltage that can be obtained from batteries but the output
obtained is variable ac voltage. The voltage and frequency of the signal obtained are of
variable nature. Here the semiconductor device i.e., the thyristor is turned off by using either
line, load, or forced commutation.
Thus, it can be said that by the use of inverters, a fixed dc voltage is changed into an ac
voltage of variable frequency. Generally, the semiconductor devices used for its fabrication are
power transistors, MOSFETs, IGBT, GTO, thyristors, ect
Inverters mainly find applications in induction motor and synchronous motor drives along with
UPS, aircraft, and space power supplies. In high voltage dc transmission system, induction
heating supplies as well as low power systems of mobile nature like flashlight discharge
system in photography camera to very high power industrial system.
Like choppers, in inverters also conventional thyristors are used in high power applications
and power transistors are used in low power applications

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4-AC to AC Converters
An ac to ac converter is designed to change the ac signal of fixed frequency into a variable
ac output voltage.

There are two classifications of ac to ac converters which are as follows:

4A-Cycloconverters: A cycloconverter is a device used for changing ac supply of fixed
voltage and single frequency into an ac output voltage of variable voltage as well as different
frequency. However, here the obtained variable ac signal frequency is lower than the
frequency of the applied ac input signal. It adopts single-stage conversion. Generally, line
commutation is mostly used in cycloconverters however forced or load commutated
cycloconverters are also used in various applications.
These mainly find applications in slow-speed large AC traction drives such as a rotary kiln,
multi MW ac motor drives, etc.
4B-AC Voltage Controllers (AC voltage regulators): The converters designed to change
the applied ac signal of fixed voltage into a variable ac voltage signal of the same frequency
as that of input. For the operation of these controllers, two thyristors in an antiparallel
arrangement are used. Line commutation is used for turning off both the devices. It offers the
controlling of the output voltage by changing the firing angle delay.
The major applications of ac voltage controllers are in lighting control, electronic tap
changers, speed control of large fans and pumps as well.
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Commutation
Commutation is the process of turning off a conducting thyristor. There are two
methods for commutation viz. natural commutation and forced commutation.
Natural Commutation
In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself. If
the SCR is connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle, the anode
current naturally becomes zero (due to the alternating nature of the AC Supply). As the
current in the circuit goes through the natural zero, a reverse voltage is applied
immediately across the SCR (due to the negative half cycle). These conditions turn OFF
the SCR.
This method of commutation is also called as Source Commutation or AC Line
Commutation or Class F Commutation. This commutation is possible with line
commutated inverters, controlled rectifiers, cyclo converters and AC voltage regulators
because the supply is the AC source in all these converters.

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Forced Commutation
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In
such circuits, forward current must be forced to zero with an external circuit
(known as Commutating Circuit) to commutate the SCR. Hence the name,
Forced Commutation.
This commutating circuit consist of components like inductors and capacitors
and they are called Commutating Components. These commutating
components cause to apply a reverse voltage across the SCR that immediately
bring the current in the SCR to zero.
Depending on the process for achieving zero current in the SCR and the
arrangement of the commutating components, Forced Commutation is
classified into different types. They are:
Class A – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class B – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class C – Complementary Commutation
Class D – Auxiliary Commutation
Class E – Pulse Commutation
This commutation is mainly used in chopper and inverter circuits.

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Linear Voltage Regulator
Electronic systems usually receive a power-supply voltage that is higher than
the voltage required by the system’s circuitry. For example, a 9 V battery might be used
to power an amplifier that needs an input range of 0 to 5 V, In such case, we need to
regulate the input power using a component that accepts a higher voltage and
produces a lower voltage.One very common way to achieve this type of regulation is to
incorporate a linear voltage regulator.
The simplest regulators are called 3-pin regulators, which output a stable
fixed voltage just by inserting an input capacitor (CIN) between the VIN and the GND
pins, and an output capacitor (COUT) between the VOUT and the GND pins.
The figure below illustrates that the controlling circuit supervises the output
voltage and regulates the resistance value of the variable resistor so that the IC can
output the set fixed voltage. For instance, if the input voltage (VIN) is fixed, a linear
regulator can maintain a stable output voltage by keeping the ratio between the
variable resistance value and the load resistance value fixed according to the changing
rate of the load resistance value. The input voltage is divided by the two resistors, so
linear regulators generate a lower output voltage than their input voltage. The
difference between the higher input voltage and lower output voltage will generate
heat which is called waste heat. The current flowing inside the load resistor goes on to
flow to the variable resistor, where the electricity is consumed with some heat
generated.
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SMPS-Switched Mode Power Supply
SMPS is an electronic power supply system that makes use of a switching regulator to
transfer electrical power effectively. It is a PSU (power supply unit) and is usually used in
computers to change the voltage to the appropriate range for the computer.

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