Functions
• The idea of a function is this: a correspondence between two sets D
and R such that to each element of the first set, D, there corresponds
one and only one element of the second set, R.
• If in an equation in two variables, we get exactly one output (value for
the dependent variable) for each input (value for the independent
variable), then the equation specifies a function. The graph of such a
function is just the graph of the specifying equation.
• The first set is called the domain, and the set of corresponding
elements in the second set is called the range.
Vertical Line Test for a Function
An equation specifies a function if each vertical line in the
coordinate system passes through at most one point on the
graph of the equation.
If any vertical line passes through two or more points on the
graph of an equation, then the equation does not specify a
function.
If we get more than one output for a given input, the
equation does not specify a function.
Summary of Graph Transformations
• Vertical Translation: y = f (x) + k
• k > 0 Shift graph of y = f (x) up k units.
• k < 0 Shift graph of y = f (x) down |k| units.
• Horizontal Translation: y = f (x + h)
• h > 0 Shift graph of y = f (x) left h units.
• h < 0 Shift graph of y = f (x) right |h| units.
• Reflection: y = –f (x)
Reflect the graph of y = f (x) in the x-axis.
• Vertical Stretch and Shrink: y = Af (x)
• A > 1: Stretch graph of y = f (x) vertically by multiplying
each ordinate value by A.
• 0 < A < 1: Shrink graph of y = f (x) vertically by multiplying
each ordinate value by A.
The Perfect Square
Vertex Form of the
Quadratic Function
It is convenient to convert the general form of
a quadratic equation
f ( x) ax bx c
2
to what is known as the vertex form:
f ( x ) a ( x h) k
2
Generalization
For f ( x ) a ( x h) 2 k
• If a ≠ 0, then the graph of f is a parabola.
• If a > 0, the graph opens upward.
• If a < 0, the graph opens downward. Vertex is (h , k)
• Axis of symmetry: x = h
• f (h) = k is the minimum if a > 0, otherwise the
maximum
• Domain = set of all real numbers
• Range:
y y k
if a < 0. If a > 0, the range is
y y k
Copyright © 2015, 2011, and 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. 6 6
Characteristics of Polynomials
• Graphs of polynomials are continuous. One can sketch
the graph without lifting up the pencil.
• Graphs of polynomials have no sharp corners.
• Graphs of polynomials usually have turning points,
which is a point that separates an increasing portion of
the graph from a decreasing portion.
• A polynomial of degree n can have at most n linear
factors. Therefore, the graph of a polynomial function of
positive degree n can intersect the x axis at most n times.
• A polynomial of degree n may intersect the x axis fewer
than n times.
Generalizations about
Asymptotes of Rational Functions
Vertical Asymptotes:
Case1: Suppose n(x) and d(x) have no real zero in
common. The line x = c is a vertical asymptote if d(c) = 0.
Case 2: If n(x) and d(x) have one or more real zeros in
common, cancel the linear factors. Then apply Case 1.
Generalizations about
Asymptotes of Rational Functions
Horizontal Asymptotes:
Case1: If degree of n(x) < degree of d(x) then y = 0 is the
horizontal asymptote.
Case 2: If degree of n(x) = degree of d(x) then y = a/b is
the horizontal asymptote, where a is the leading
coefficient of n(x) and b is the leading coefficient of d(x).
Case 3: If degree of n(x) > degree of d(x) there is no
horizontal asymptote.
Properties of Exponential Functions
For a and b positive, a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1, and x and y real,
1. Exponent laws: x
a x y
a a a
x y x y
y
a
a x
a ax
y x
ax a xy ab a x bx b bx
2. ax = ay if and only if x = y
3. For x ≠ 0, ax = bx if and only if a = b.
Definition of Inverse Function
• If f is a one-to-one function, then the inverse of f is the
function formed by interchanging the independent and
dependent variable for f. Thus, if (a, b) is a point on the
graph of f, then (b, a) is a point on the graph of the inverse
of f.
• The horizontal line test. Any horizontal line drawn through
the graph of a one to one function will cross the graph only
once.
• Note: If a function is not one-to-one (fails the horizontal
line test) then f does not have an inverse.
Logarithmic Function
The inverse of an exponential function is called a
logarithmic function. For b > 0 and b ≠ 1,
y log b x is equivalent to xb y
The log to the base b of x is the exponent to which b must be
raised to obtain x. The domain of the logarithmic function is the
set of all positive real numbers and the range of the logarithmic
function is the set of all real numbers.
Logarithmic Function
The inverse of an exponential function is called a
logarithmic function. For b > 0 and b ≠ 1,
𝑥
𝑥=log 𝑏 𝑦 is equivalent to 𝑦 =𝑏
The log to the base b of y is the exponent to which b must
be raised to obtain y. The domain of the logarithmic
function is the set of all positive real numbers and the range
of the logarithmic function is the set of all real numbers .
Graph, Domain, Range
of Logarithmic Functions
• The domain of the logarithmic function y = log2x is
the same as the range of the exponential function y =
2x. Why?
• The range of the logarithmic function is the same as
the domain of the exponential function (Again, why?)
• Another fact: If one graphs any one to one function
and its inverse on the same grid, the two graphs will
always be symmetric with respect to the line y = x.
Properties of Logarithms
If b, M, and N are positive real numbers, b ≠ 1, and p and x are real
numbers, then
1. log b (1) 0
2. log b (b) 1
3. log b b x x
log b x
4. b x
Example of a
Piecewise-Defined Function
Graph the function
What is the Domain of this function?
Example of a
Piecewise-Defined Function
Graph the function
Notice that the
point (2, 1) is
included but the
point (2, 3) is not.
