Lesson One
NETWORKS AND PERFORMACE
What is the System/ Storage Area
Networks
?
What is the system area network?
A system area network (SAN) is a group of devices that are linked
by a high-speed, high-performance connection.
are high-performance, connection-oriented networks that link
computer clusters. Microsoft SQL Server 2005 uses it for high-
performance connectivity through Virtual Interface Adapter (VIA).
This technology is used since the advent of Windows 2000
A SAN connection uses Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, which
are assigned by TCP/IP to each SAN network interface
controller (NIC), to determine data routing.
Fibre Channel is an example of a SAN technology. It provides
a high-speed switched environment in which any device on the
network can connect with any other device and communicate
over a dedicated high-speed link. InfiniBand is another.
A Storage Area Network (SAN)
SAN is a network of storage devices that can be accessed by multiple
servers or computers, providing a shared pool of storage space.
Each computer on the network can access storage on the SAN as though
they were local disks connected directly to the computer.
This concept enables storage devices and servers to interconnect by using
similar elements, such as local area networks (LANs) and wide-area
networks (WANs).
A SAN also includes a management layer that organizes the connections,
storage elements and computer systems. This layer ensures secure and
robust data transfers.
A SAN consists of three basic components: servers, network infrastructure,
and storage. These components can be further broken down into the
following key elements: node ports, cabling, interconnecting devices (such
as switches or hubs), storage arrays, and SAN management software.
Storage Area Networks:
— Separate network handling storage needs
— Detaches storage tasks from specific servers
— Shared storage facility across high-speed network
— Hard disks, tape libraries, CD arrays
— Improved client-server storage access
— Direct storage to storage communication for backup
• High speed office networks
— Desktop image processing
— High capacity local storage
• Backbone LANs
— Interconnect low speed local LANs
— Reliability
— Capacity
— Cost
Storage Area Networks
NETWORKS and PERFORMACE
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as
nodes) connected by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a
task is divided among multiple computers.
Instead of one single large machine being responsible
for all aspects of a process, separate computers
(usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a
subset.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.
The most important of these are performance, reliability, and
security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit
time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response.
Cont’d…
The performance of a network depends on a number of
factors, including
The number of users,
The type of transmission medium,
The capabilities of the connected hardware, and the
efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
Throughput and Delay.
We often need more throughput and less delay.
However, these two criteria are often contradictory.
If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase
throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.
Cont’d…
Depends on tools of transmitting data (signals) over a
network and how the data behave.
One important issue in networking is the performance of
the network-how good is it?
The quality of service, an overall measurement of network
performance,
Bandwidth
One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth.
However, the term can be used in two different contexts with two
different measuring values:
Bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per second.
Bandwidth in Hertz
Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite
signal or the range of frequencies a channel can pass. For example, we
can say the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds
The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that
a channel, a link, or even a network can transmit. For example, one can
say the bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links in this
network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can
send100 Mbps.
Relationship
There is an explicit relationship between the
bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per seconds.
Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an
increase in bandwidth in bits per second.
The relationship depends on whether we have
baseband transmission or transmission with
modulation.
Cont’d…
In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.
The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of frequencies
in a composite signal or the range of frequencies that a channel
can pass.
The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed
of bit transmission in a channel or link.
Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data
through a network.
Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and
throughput seem the same, they are different.
A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T
bps through this link with T always less than B.
In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a
link
the throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can send
data.
For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the
devices connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps.
This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.
Analogy
Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per
minute from one point to another.
However, if there is congestion on the road, this figure may
be reduced to 100 cars per minute.
The bandwidth is 1000 cars per minute and the throughput
is 100 cars per minute.
Example
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only
an average of 12,000 frames per minute with each
frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits.
What is the throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
Throughput = ( # frames (msg) x # bits in each frame(msg))
Total Time taken
Throughput = 12,000 x 10,000 =2 Mbps
60
The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in
this case.
Latency (Delay)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire
message to completely arrive at the destination from the time
the first bit is sent out from the source.
We can say that latency is made of four components:
Propagation time, transmission time, queuing time and
processing delay.
Latency =propagation time +transmission time +queuing time +
processing delay
Propagation Time
Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to
travel from the source to the destination.
The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance
by the propagation speed.
Propagation = Distance
propagation speed
The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends
on the medium and on the frequency of the signal.
For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated with a speed
of 3 x 108 mls.
It is lower in air, it is much lower in cable.
Cont’d…
What is the propagation time if the distance between
the two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation
speed to be 2.4 x 108 m/s
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as in cable:
Propagation time = 12000x1000 = 50 ms
2.4 x 108
The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic
Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between
the source and the destination.
Transmission time
In data communications we don't send just 1 bit, we send a
message.
The first bit may take a time equal to the propagation time to
reach its destination; the last bit also may take the same amount
of time.
However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender
and the last bit arriving at the receiver.
The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier and the last bit
leaves later and arrives later.
The time required for transmission of a message depends on the
size of the message and the bandwidth of the channel.
Transmission time = Message size
Bandwidth
Example 1
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an
e-mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps?
Assume that the distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that
light travels at 2.4 x 108 m/s
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as
Solution
Propagation time = 12000x1000 = 50 ms
2.4 x 108
Transmission time = Message size =2500 x 8 = 0.002 ms
Bandwidth 109
Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high, the
dominant factor is the propagation time, not the transmission time. The transmission
time can be ignored.
Example 2
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a
5Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1
Mbps?
Assume that the distance between the sender and the receiver is
12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 x 108 m/s
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as
Solution
Ans: 40 s
Note that in this case, because the message is short and the
bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the propagation time,
not the transmission time. The transmission time can be ignored.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link
to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a
catastrophe.
Security
Network security issues include
Protecting data from unauthorized access,
Protecting data from damage and development,
Implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
CONNECTIVITY:- Types of Connections
A network is two or more devices connected through links.
A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from
one device to another.
For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link
as a line drawn between two points.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected
in some way to the same link at the same time.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point
and multipoint.
Cont’d…
Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link
between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to con
nect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are
also possible (see Figure below).
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
Multipoint A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in
which more than two specific devices share a single link (see Figure
below).
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection.
If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
Connecting Devices
and Multi-Homed Machines
Layer 1 (Physical) Devices
Repeater:
Extends distances by repeating a signal
Any slight variations in the carrier wave for individual
bits is corrected when the carrier wave is reproduced
Hub:
As above, but re-creates the carrier wave on multiple
ports
Hubs do not decide whether or not to copy data, they do
it (necessary or unnecessary)
All ports are part of the same collision domain
With a hub as the centre of the star, any 2 hosts can have frame
collisions
Layer 2 (Data Link) Devices
Layer 2 switch:
Serves the same purpose as a hub
Can dynamically determine if a frame should be placed on a port
(and which one)
The data link layer (e.g. MAC) address is used to make this
determination
A table of MAC addresses and corresponding ports is built using
incoming frames
Each LAN segment (port) becomes its own collision domain
Only 2 hosts on the same LAN segment can have frame collisions
Layer 2 bridge
As above, but the connected networks do not necessarily have to be
of the same type
Layer 2 Switch Benefits
No change to attached devices to convert bus LAN or hub
LAN to switched LAN
For Ethernet LAN, each device uses Ethernet MAC
protocol
Device has dedicated capacity equal to original LAN
Assuming switch has sufficient capacity to keep up with all devices
For example if switch can sustain throughput of 20 Mbps, each
device appears to have dedicated capacity for either input or output
of 10 Mbps
Layer 2 switch scales easily
Additional devices attached to switch by increasing capacity of layer
2
Types of Layer 2 Switch
Store-and-forward switch
Accepts frame on input line
Buffers it briefly,
Then routes it to appropriate output line
Delay between sender and receiver
Boosts integrity of network
Cut-through switch
Takes advantage of destination address appearing at beginning of
frame
Switch begins repeating frame onto output line as soon as it recognizes
destination address
Highest possible throughput
Risk of propagating bad frames
Layer 2/3 Devices
Broadband (Cable/DSL) or Wireless Router
Primarily operates as a layer 2 switch / access point
However, these routers often have additional features (some of
which are in layer 3):
Dynamic host configuration (DHCP) – IP address assignment for
network hosts, for example
DNS capability (local or distributed) – Provides naming of hosts inside
the network
IP masquerading – The router can use one IP given by a broadband
provider, but allow all of its hosts to use different IPs inside the network
Layer 3 Switch
Uses layer 3 routing to determine a path for packets
Once a path is found, subsequent packets are switched
This switching typically occurs on layer 2
These devices will be discussed in more detail later
Layer 3 (Network) Devices
Layer 3 Bridge
A bridge that uses network layer addresses (e.g. IP) in its forwarding
database, instead of data link layer addresses (e.g. MAC)
This type of bridge more readily allows different types of network to
be joined, since they need not share an address type
Cannot handle multiple paths effectively/efficiently: a host is either
on a given port or it is not
Router
Determines routes for each packet using network layer addresses
(e.g. IP)
Can connect any type of network together
Is capable of determining preferred paths where multiple paths exist
Routers
What is a Router Made of?
A router has many of the same components as your
computer:
CPU
Memory
I/O Interfaces (mostly network interfaces)
Operating System
Routers Through History
Gateways:
A computer with installed software to forward packets
These are obsolete, but were common in the early days of ARPANet
Routers:
A computer with specialized hardware and operating system
designed for forwarding packets
Switching Routers:
A computer with specialized hardware (switching fabric) that allows
packets to be forwarded directly in hardware
The specialized hardware is, in many respects, similar to that of a
switch (e.g. ATM switch)
Router Hardware
Input buffers (one for each network interface):
Used to store incoming packets before they are processed
Routing processor:
This is often software running on a CPU which:
Maintains and exchanges routing data with other routers
Controls the switching fabric to forward packets
With high-end routers, each network interface may have a local
routing processor (for forwarding) so that each can forward the
packets in its own input buffer independently
Switching fabric:
A network of connections between network interfaces (and their
input and output buffers)
Output buffers (one for each network interface):
Used to store outgoing packets after they are processed, but before
the network is available for transmission
Routers: Network Interfaces
Often, routers have modularized network
interfaces
One can add/remove/replace network interfaces as needs
change
Some routers can accept network interface modules of
different types (e.g. Ethernet, Token Ring)
Each network interface would have its own:
Input buffer
Output buffer
Routing processor (in high-end routers)
Routers: Input Buffers
The incoming packets of a network interface are placed in
input buffers
These are banks of very high speed memory for packet queuing
prior to processing
The packet is stored here until the routing processor is available
The network interface may have a routing processor, which
would:
… have a copy of the forwarding table (to prevent concurrent
access)
… lookup the destination address in this forwarding table, to
determine the correct output port
… configure the switching fabric to forward the packet to the correct
output buffer
Low-end routers would share one routing processor
Routers: Routing Processors
Routing processors have two functions:
1. Maintain and exchange routing data with other
routers in the network
Often this involves computing the forwarding table
from data received by other routers
2. Use the forwarding table data to configure the
switching fabric to forward the packet to the correct
output port
Routers: Routing Processors
A routing processor is software which executes
on a CPU:
Off-the-shelf CPU
These are very inexpensive
However, the performance of these CPUs is low since they
are not optimized for the types of operations a router
typically needs to perform
Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
These are expensive to design (time and money)
They are optimized for typical routing operations
High-end routers use these to achieve higher performance
levels
Routers: Switching Fabric
Switching fabric’s job is to move packets from the
input buffer into the correct output buffer
The routing processor determines the correct output port,
using the forwarding table
Routers: Switching Fabric
Switching fabric comes in 3 major types:
In-memory switching fabric:
The packets are input into the routing processor’s memory, and
output into the correct output buffer
Bus-based switching fabric:
The packets move along a shared bus (similar to a network bus)
to the correct output buffer
Crossbar switching fabric:
The packets move along a grid of redundant buses
If any bus fails, alternate paths exist so that forwarding can
continue
Routers: Output Buffers
The switching fabric gets the packet to the right output
port
However, that port’s network may not be immediately
available
The packets are stored in the output buffer until the
network is available
Router Performance
Several methods to improve router performance
have been discussed:
Use application-specific integrated circuits
Optimized for routing operations
Include much routing functionality otherwise executed as
software (in memory)
Many routing functions can execute in parallel, adding new
functionality without decreasing throughput
Use efficient switching fabric
Bus or crossbar-based switching fabrics reduce the need for in-
memory processing
PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
In this section, we define two widely used terms:
protocols and standards. First, we define protocol,
which is synonymous with rule. Then we discuss
standards, which are agreed-upon rules.
Protocols In computer networks, communication
occurs between entities in different systems. An entity
is anything capable of sending or receiving
information. However, two entities cannot simply
send bit streams to each other and expect to be
understood. For communication to occur, the entities
must agree on a protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications.
A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data,
meaning the order in which they are presented.
For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the
address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and
the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of
bits. How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to
be taken based on that interpretation?
For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message?
Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should
be sent and how fast they can be sent.
For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can
process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and
some data will be lost.
Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an
open and competitive market for equipment manufacturers
and in guaranteeing national and international
interoperability of data and telecommunications
technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines
Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government
agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in
international communications. Data communication standards fall
into two categories:
de facto (meaning"by fact" or "by convention")
de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized
body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use are
de facto standards. De facto standards are often established originally
by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new
product or technology.
o De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially
recognized body are de jure standards.
Standards Organizations
Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards
creation committees, forums, and government regulatory
agencies.
Assignment
Discuss
Briefly concerning standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.
Bandwidth-Delay Product
Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link.
Assignment- Case Study
Discuss and elaborate on this issue (Bandwidth-Delay
Product) , using two hypothetical cases as examples.
Refer Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition
by Behrouz A. Forouzan will find a wide variety of resources
available at the Online Learning Center,
www.mhhe.comlforouzan
