UNIT IV:

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION TOOLS AND

TECHNIQUES

• M.Sc. (Environmental Management)

• SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND
• MANAGEMENT (SchEMS)
COURSE OUTLINE

• Sources of information, Techniques of sampling

• Field survey, qualitative studies
• Types of sampling: probability and non-probability; their
importance and limitations
• Uses and limitations of specific data collection techniques
 •Primary Sources:
• original,
SOURCES OF
• uninterrupted information,
INFORMATION:
IDENTIFY • unedited,

POSSIBLE • firsthand access to words,

SOURCES OF • images,

INFORMATION • or objects created by persons directly

involved in an activity or event or
speaking directly for a group.
PRIMARY SOURCES
• Person Interview,
• E-Mail contact,
• Event,
• Discussion,
• Debate,
• Community Meeting,
• Survey,
• Observation of object
 SECONDARY SOURCES

Secondary sources:
 interpreted,
 analyze or summarize of information
 Secondary sources are edited primary sources, second-hand versions

Sources of information:
Reference Material, Book, CD Rom, Encyclopedia, Magazine, Newspaper, Video
Tape, Audio Tape, TV, Internet Web Site, Graph, chart, diagram, and table.
TWO SOURCES OF INFORMATION: 1.
INTERNAL SOURCES
 National Planning Commission (NPC):
 [email protected]
 Ministry of Information & Communications:
 http://www.moic.gov.np
 Central Bureau of Statistics: http://www.cbs.gov.np
 Nepal Rastra Bank: http://www.nrb.org.np
• Government of Nepal Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment:
http://moste.gov.np/
 ICIMOD: http://www.icimod.org
 2. EXTERNAL SOURCES

• Country Statistical Agencies: http://www.census.gov/aboutus/stat int.html

• UNDATA: http://data.un.org/:Over 300 sets of data
• WB: http://www.worldbank.org,
• IMF: http://www.imf.org
• CIA the-world-fact book: https://www.cia.gov
SAMPLE AND CENSUS

Sample
 A sample survey is asked of a limited group of people
 part/subset of the population
 Sample surveys are inquiries that cover part/subset of the
population
 SAMPLE AND CENSUS

Census:
• A census is the procedure of systematically getting and recording information
about the members of a given population.
• It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population.
• Census is conducted in an attempted to get an answer from all people in a
geographical area
SAMPLE VS. CENSUS

Conditions Favoring the

Use of
Type of Study Sample Census
1. Budget Small Large
2. Time available Short Long
3. Population size Small Large
4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large
5. Cost of sampling errors Low High
6. Cost of non-sampling errors High Low
7. Nature of measurement Critical Uncritical
8. Attention to individual cases Yes No
QUALITATIVE FIELD RESEARCH

• Preparing for the Field

• Be familiar with relevant research
• Discuss your plans with others in the area
• Identify and meet informants (when appropriate)
• First impressions are important
• Establish rapport (an open and trusting relationship)
• Ethical considerations
QUALITATIVE FIELD RESEARCH

Qualitative Interview – difference with survey interviewing, the qualitative

interview is based on a set of topics to be discussed in depth rather than
based on the use of standardized questions.
QUALITATIVE FIELD RESEARCH

• Recording Observations
• Take detailed notes, but balance with observations
• Rewrite notes with observations soon after observations with filled in details
• Record empirical observations and interpretations
• Record everything
• Anticipate observations
 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF
QUALITATIVE FIELD RESEARCH
 Strengths of Qualitative Field Research
 Effective for studying small idea in attitudes and behaviors and social processes over time
 Flexibility
 Inexpensive

 Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research

 No appropriate statistical analyses
 Sampling methods are classified as
either probability or non-
probability

SELECTION In non-probability sampling,

OF SAMPLE members are selected from the
population in some nonrandom
METHOD manner.

In probability samples, each

member of the population has a
known non-zero probability of being
selected.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
Sampling Techniques

Non-probability Probability
Sampling Sampling

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques
NON-PROBABILITY: CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of

convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected
because they happen to be in the right place at the right time.

• “people on the street” interviews

 JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING

Judgmental sampling is a form of easiness sampling in

which the population elements are selected based on the
judgment of the researcher.

• Expert: subject matter interview…

• witnesses used in court
 QUOTA SAMPLING

Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling.

• The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of
population elements.
• In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on convenience or
judgment.

Population Sample
composition composition
Control
Characteristic Number 10%

Male 480 48

Female 520 52
____ ____
Total 1000 100
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• Simple Random Sampling

• Systematic Random Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Cluster Random Sampling
 SIMPLY RANDOM SAMPLING

• Get a list or “sampling frame”

• This is the hard part! It must not systematically exclude anyone.
• Remember the famous sampling mistake?

• Generate random numbers

• Select one person per random number
• Ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of selection
• Random.xlsx
 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91
2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 93
4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 94
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95
6 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86 96
7 17 27 37 47 57 67 77 87 97
8 18 28 38 48 58 68 78 88 98
9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

5 18 26 59 62 65 67 77 96 97
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

 Each element in the population has a

known and equal probability of selection.
 Each possible sample of a given size (n)
has a known and equal probability of
being the sample actually selected.
 This implies that every element is selected
independently of every other element.
 SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING
• Select a random number, which will be known as k
• Get a list of people, or observe a flow of people Select every kth person
• Careful that there is no systematic rhythm to the flow or list of people.
 SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING

• N =100
• Want n = 20
• N/n = 100/20 = 5
• Select a random number from 1-5: chose any one number
using lottery
• Start with lottery number and take every 5th unit
• Random.xlsx
SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91
2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83 93
4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84 94
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95
6 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86 96
7 17 27 37 47 57 67 77 87 97
8 18 28 38 48 58 68 78 88 98
9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLE

• Separate your population into groups or “strata”

• If your sampling frame is sorted by, school district, then you’re able to
use this method
• Do either a simple random sample or systematic random sample from
there
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
• Divide population into groups that differ in
important ways
• Basis for grouping must be known before Sampling
• Select random sample from within each group
A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase
accuracy without increasing cost.
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
• Get a list of “clusters,” e.g., branches of a company
• Randomly sample clusters from that list
• In an airlines company there are say, 15 branches
• Randomly sample people within those branches
• This method is complex and expensive!
TYPES OF CLUSTER SAMPLING

Cluster Sampling

One-Stage Two-Stage Multistage

Sampling Sampling Sampling

Probability
Simple Cluster
balanced
Sampling
to Size Sampling
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF BASIC
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Technique Strengths Weaknesses
Nonprobability Sampling Least expensive, least Selection bias, sample not
Convenience sampling time-consuming, most representative, not recommended for
convenient descriptive or causal research
Judgmental sampling Low cost, convenient, Does not allow generalization,
not time-consuming subjective
Quota sampling Sample can be controlled Selection bias, no assurance of
for certain characteristics representativeness
Snowball sampling Can estimate rare Time-consuming
characteristics

Probability sampling Easily understood, Difficult to construct sampling

Simple random sampling results projectable frame, expensive, lower precision,
(SRS) no assurance of representativeness.
Systematic sampling Can increase Can decrease representativeness
representativeness,
easier to implement than
SRS, sampling frame not
necessary
Stratified sampling Include all important Difficult to select relevant
subpopulations, stratification variables, not feasible to
precision stratify on many variables, expensive
Cluster sampling Easy to implement, cost Imprecise, difficult to compute and
effective interpret results
TYPES OF SAMPLING
ERRORS

33
SAMPLING ERRORS/BIASES

34
 NON SAMPLING ERRORS
• Non sampling errors occur both in censuses and sample surveys but are
more marked in censuses

35
SOURCES OF NON SAMPLING
ERRORS

36
SOURCES CONTINUED…

37
HOW ERRORS CAN BE
MINIMISED

38
THANK YOU