QUARK GLUON PLASMA:

 It is a fifth state of matter.

 Highly ionized form of plasma or super heated form of plasma.
 In this state due to super heat, neutrons of atom melt and
convert into their tiny particles called quark.
 Gluons bind quarks together forming hadrons such as protons
and neutrons.
 Hadrons are the combine form of quark such as proton and
neutron.
Fermionic Condensate:
A fermionic condensate, or fermi condensate, is a state of matter (superfluid phase) which is
very similar to the Bose–Einstein condensate. Superfluid's are also Bose-Einstein condensates.

Boson:
Are those elements in which no. of electron , proton and neutron in even number.
Example: He = 2e, 2p, 2n etc
Fermions;
Are those elements in which no. of electron , proton and neutron in odd number.
Example: He = 2e, 2p, 2n etc

Bose Einstein condensate is due to boson and

Fermionic Condensate is due to fermions.
 KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GAS
INTRODUCTION
To illustrate the behavior of gases quantitatively Bernoulli in 1738 put forward a Kinetic Theory of gas.
STATEMENT
“A gas consist of very large number of molecules in vacant spaces”
POSTULATES OF KINETIC THEORY OF GAS
COMPOSITION
Every gas consists of a large number of very small particles called molecules. The actual volume of
molecules is negligible as compared to the total volume of gas.
MOTION
The molecules of gas are in the state of motion in all possible direction. They travel in straight lines
until on collision with other or with wall of container. The average distance between collisions is called
“Mean Free Path”
COLLISION
The collision of molecules with one another and with the walls of container is perfectly elastic (no loss
of energy)
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Molecules exert no appreciable attraction or repulsion to each other as they are far apart from each
other.
PRESSURE:
The elastic impact of molecules of a gas on the wall of container is
responsible for pressure exerted by the gas.
KINETIC ENERGY:
The absolute temperature of a gas is proportional to average kinetic
energy of molecules. K.E  T
FORCE OF GRAVITY:
Force of gravity has almost no influence on the molecules of gas.

FAULTY ASSUMPTIONS OF KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GAS

 There are no attractive forces between molecules in an ideal
gas while these exist in a real gas.
 Molecular collisions in an ideal gas are perfectly elastic while it
is not so in a real gas.
 The actual volume of molecules in an ideal gas is negligible
while in a real gas, it is appreciable.
 BOYLE’S LAW
INTRODUCTION
This law was put forward by Robert Boyle in 1660. This law
gives a relation between pressure and volume of a gas at
constant temperature.
STATEMENT
“The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional
to the pressure provided that temperature remains constant”
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
When the pressure is exerted on a given mass of a gas, the volume of the gas
decreased at constant temperature. Mathematically Boyle’s law can be
represented as.

Where “K” is the constant of proportionality .The above equation shows that
the product of pressure and volume for a given mass of gas is constant
If initial pressure and volume of gas are P1 and V1
respectively and final pressure and volume of gas
are P2 and V2 then
P1V1 = K --------- (i)
P2V2 = K --------- (ii)

Comparing eq (i) & (ii) we get

P1V1 = P2V2
LIMITATIONS OF BOYLE’S LAW
Gas obeys Boyle’s law at low pressure. At high pressure gas do not
obey Boyle’s law
BOYLE’S LAW IN THE LIGHT OF KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
At constant temperature if volume of a gas is reduced, gas molecules
will come close to each other but there is no change in the velocity of
gas molecules. In small volume chances of molecular collision with the
walls of container increases thus pressure of gas also increases
 CHARLES’S LAW
INTRODUCTION
Jacques Charles, in 1787, formulated the relationship between the
volume and temperature of a given mass of a dry gas at constant
pressure called Charles's Law.
STATEMENT
“The volume of given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature at a given pressure”
CHARLES’S LAW IN THE LIGHT OF KINETIC MOLECULAR
THEORY
If the temperature is decreased, the average kinetic energy
of the gas molecules decreases. At constant pressure the
decreased velocity causes them to shrink, therefore the
volume occupied will be small this is the Charles’s law.
LIMITATION OF CHARLES’S LAW
Gases obey Charles’s law at low pressure and
high temperature. At high pressure and low
temperature gases do not obey Charles’s law.
ABSOLUTE ZERO TEMPERATURE
“The temperature at which the volume of an
ideal gas becomes equal to zero is called
absolute zero temperature”.
0 K or -273 C0 or -414 F0
 AVOGADRO’S LAW
INTRODUCTION
Amedeo Avogadro an Italian physicist pointed out
a relationship between volume and the number
of molecules of gases in 1811. This hypothetical
relationship is called as Avogadro’s law.
STATEMENT
“Equal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules and the volume of gas is
directly proportional to the number of
molecules”.
Vn
GENERAL GAS EQUATION
This is an equation showing the general behavior of
volume, temperature and pressure of an ideal gas. It is
obtained by combining Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and
Avogadro’s law.
 DERIVATION
According to Boyle’s law
V α 1/P
(i)
According to Charles’s law
Vα T --------------- (ii )
According to Avogadro’s law
Vα n ----------------- (iii)
On combining equation (i), (ii) and (iii)
V α 1/P × T × n
V =( const ) 1/P × T × n
V= R 1/P × T × n

PV=nRT

This is called ideal gas equation. Here “R” is the

constant of proportionality and is called universal
gas constant
VALUE OF R (When “P” is in atmosphere & “V” in dm3)
R=
P = 1 atmosphere
V = 22.41 dm3
n = 1 mole
T = 273 K
R=
R = 0.0821 atm-dm3/mole -K
VALUE OF R (When “P” is in N/m2& “V” in m3)
R=
P = 101300 N/m2
V = 0.0224 m3
n = 1 mole
T = 273 K

(N/m2.m3 become after calculation N.m and is equal to joule)

 GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
INTRODUCTION
Gases diffuse into each other if mixed in a thin tube
or a porous material. Gases also escape from the
container having a fine opening.
Graham studies these phenomenon put forward his
law of diffusion in 1829.
STATEMENT
“The rate of diffusion or effusions of gases are
inversely proportional to the square root of their
densities or molecular mass at constant temperature
and pressure”
 r =
=
=
=
=
=
APPLICATION OF GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
 It can be used to separate isotopes of a gas
 It can be used to separate one gas from other gas
 It can be used to determine weight and density of
gases

 Explain the rate of diffusion of different gasses by

solve the problem below
 Which gas diffuse faster among the given example
and why?
H2, O2, Cl2, NH3, CH4, N2, He,
 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
INTRODUCTION
This law was put forward by John Dalton in 1801, as
a result of experiment in which he measured the
pressure of a gas in fixed volume.
STATEMENT
“The total pressure of a mixture of non- reacting
gases is the sum of the partial pressure of each gas
component in the mixture”
PARTIAL PRESSURE
“The pressure which each gas exerts individually in a gaseous
mixture is called its partial pressure”
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
Suppose two gases A & B are stored in a container of volume
“V” at a fixed temperature assuming that the gases do not
chemically react with each other. The total pressure of the
mixture would be equal to the sum of individual pressure of gas
“A” & “B” due to the same conditions of temperature and
pressure.

the total number of moles in the gaseous mixture given as

nt = nA + nB + nC
Total pressure of the gaseous mixture
Pt = PA + PB + PC
The partial pressure of PA, PB and PC according to
combine gas law
PA = nA ----------- (i)
PB = nB ----------- (ii)
PC = nC ----------- (iii)
Adding eq (i) , (ii) and (iii) we get
PA + PB + PC = nA + nB + nC
PA + PB + PC = nA + nB + nC ( )
PT = nT ( ) ----------- (iv)
Dividing eq (i) by eq (iv)
=
=

PA = P T

Similarly
PB = P T
Pgas = Ptotal
EXPLANATION BY KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
According to kinetic molecular theory of gases, the pressure of a
gas depends on the number of collision between the molecules
and the wall of container. When two or more gases are mixed
together, the molecules of each gas collide with the wall of
container independently.
As the total number of collisions of the gaseous mixture is equal
to the sum of each component of gas the total pressure of
mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressure of component of
gases
APPLICATION OF DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
1. COLLECTION OF GAS OVER WATER
When a gas is collected over water, a little vapour is also present in the gas.
This is called wet gas and its pressure is equal to the pressure of dry gas and
water vapour therefore according to Dalton’s law.
P(wet gas ) = P(dry gas ) +
2. RESPIRATION PROCESS
In the respiration process, the exchange of gases depends on difference in
partial pressure of oxygen in air and lungs.
3. AT HIGHER ALTITUDE
Normally the partial pressure of oxygen in air is 159 g/cm2. One can breathe
easily at this pressure. But at high altitude may not comfortable breathing as
partial pressure of oxygen is around 150 g/cm2. Therefore pilots are
pressurized to overcome this difficulty.
IDEAL GAS
“All those gases which obey all the gas laws i.e Boyle’s law, Charles's law and
Graham’s law for all temperature and pressure. Since the general gas equation
is derived from the gas laws therefore the ideal gases also obey this equation”

NON- IDEAL GASES

“All those gases which does not obey the gas laws or the gas equation are
called non- ideal gases”

EXPLANATION
As a matter of fact there is no any gas which may be ideal or perfect gas, it only
an imaginary gas there are real gases which are not imaginary gas. The real gas
does not obey the gas laws and the gas equation e.g Oxygen, Hydrogen and
Nitrogen etc. In other words, they show deviation from the ideal behavior. The
reason for the deviation of real gases from the ideal behavior being the two
defective assumptions of kinetic molecular theory of gases that are:
CAUSES OF DEVIATION
The deviation from ideal behavior of a gas is due to the
following postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory
1. Actual volume of gases molecules is negligible as
compared to the total volume of the gas
2. There is no attraction among the molecules of the gas.
EXPLANATION
The first assumption is responsible for the deviation at low
temperature and second assumption is responsible for deviation
at very high pressure. At high pressure molecules of a gas come
closer and the space between the molecules decreases and as a
result volume occupied by actual gas molecules does not remain
negligible as compared to the total volume of the gas. When the
pressure is low, the inter molecular attractive forces become
prominent between the molecules and thus molecules attract
each other.
CONCLUSION
Thus it is concluded that:
1. Ideal gas obeys the gas laws and real gas deviates from gas
laws.
2. In ideal gas volume of molecule is negligible but real gas
molecules posses some volume.
3. In ideal gas intermolecular forces are absent, in real gas at
high pressure and low temperature intermolecular forces
appears.
4. In ideal gas collision between the molecules is perfectly
elastic while in real gas collision of molecules is not perfectly
elastic.