LOGICAL

FALLACIES

NAEEM AHSAN TALHA

LECTURER
SCHOOL OF LAW
CHITTAGONG INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY
 WHAT IS A LOGICAL FALLACY?

• A fallacy is an error of reasoning. These are

flawed statements that often sound true
• Logical fallacies are often used to strengthen an
argument, but if the reader detects them the
argument can backfire, and damage the writer’s
credibility
Example:
• Person A: "We should consider implementing
stricter gun control laws to reduce violent crime."
Person B: "But you're just a politician who doesn't
understand firearms. Why should we listen to
you?"
ORIGINS

• The word “fallacy” derives from

the Latin word fallere meaning,
“to deceive, to trip, to lead into
error or to trick.” The word also
derives from the Greek phelos,
meaning “deceitful.”
WHY STUDY LOGICAL FALLACIES?
TYPES OF LOGICAL
FALLACIES
1. Bandwagon Approach:
Appeal to Popularity

The "Bandwagon Approach" is a type of logical

fallacy where an argument is supported solely
because many people believe it or do it. This fallacy
suggests that something must be true, correct, or
desirable because many others believe, endorse, or
follow it. The underlying assumption is that
popularity equates to validity or superiority.
For example:
- "90 percent of computer users choose Macs,
so they must be the best computers on the
market.”
- “It must be cool because everyone is doing it…
 2. SLIPPERY SLOPE

- a fallacious argument built on the supposition that a

small step will lead to a larger chain of events.
Asserting that a relatively small first step will inevitably
lead to a chain of related events with significant
consequences.
- Example: "If we allow same-sex marriage, next
people will want to marry animals.”
- “If you don’t stop smoking, then you are going to
start shooting heroin.”
- “Marijuana is the gateway drug.”
SLIPPERY SLOPE
3. APPEALS TO AUTHORITY

• Using a celebrity or authority figure’s name to

support an issue which if not really his or her
expertise. Relying on the opinion of an authority
figure rather than providing evidence or logical
reasoning.
Example:
• "Dr. Smith says that this diet is the best, so it must be
true."
• “Katie Perry thinks the killer should be pardoned.”
FALSE AUTHORITY .
• Often called.. . Using a suspicious, incredible source
to defend a conclusion
 4. CARD STACKING

• Card stacking is a type of logical fallacy where relevant

information or evidence is selectively presented or
manipulated to support a particular perspective while
ignoring or omitting contrary evidence. This fallacy
distorts the truth by presenting only one side of the
argument or by presenting facts in a biased manner,
thereby misleading the audience.
• Material is simply left out or taken out of context,
ignoring evidence that doesn’t support your opinion
Example:
• A company advertises its new skincare product, claiming
it is "clinically proven to reduce wrinkles in just one
week!"
5) HASTY
GENERALIZATIONS
• This is the chief error in reasoning!
• Hasty generalization is a logical fallacy where a conclusion
is drawn based on insufficient or limited evidence, leading
to an overgeneralization or premature judgment. This
fallacy occurs when someone forms a broad conclusion
about a group, situation, or phenomenon based on a small
or unrepresentative sample.
Example:
“last two mass murderers were from Michigan.
Obviously, people from Michigan are dangerous.”
"I met two rude people from that city, so everyone
there must be rude."
 6. STRAW MAN

• A fallacy of distraction – an irrelevant conclusion.

• The Straw Man fallacy occurs when someone
misrepresents or exaggerates an opponent's
argument or position to make it easier to attack
or refute. Instead of addressing the actual
argument presented by the opponent, the person
constructs a weaker or distorted version of it and
then attacks that version instead.
Example:
• "Opponents of the new tax plan want everyone
to be poor and unemployed."
STRAW MAN
7. APPEALS TO PITY: EMOTION

• Appealing to someone’s emotions in order to distract them

from the truth.
• The Appeal to Emotion fallacy occurs when someone attempts
to persuade or convince others by appealing to their
emotions, such as fear, pity, or sympathy, rather than
presenting logical arguments or evidence.
• Example:

• "If we don't act now, our children will suffer in poverty

forever.”
• "If we don't pass this law, our children will be in grave
danger! Think about the innocent lives we could save
by supporting this legislation.”.
•
 8. AD HOMINEM

• The Ad Hominem fallacy occurs when someone attacks the person

making an argument rather than addressing the argument itself.
This fallacy involves pointing out negative characteristics or flaws
in the person making the argument in an attempt to discredit their
position.
Example:
• Person A: "I believe we should invest more in renewable
energy sources to combat climate change."
• Person B: "But why should we listen to you? You dropped
out of college and have no scientific background. Your
opinion on this matter is irrelevant.”
• How could Mary know anything about cars? She’s a
woman!
 9. NON SEQUITUR

• The term "Non Sequitur" is Latin for "it does not follow."
This fallacy occurs when the conclusion does not logically
follow from the premises. In simpler terms, it's when
someone makes a statement or conclusion that seems
unrelated or disconnected from the given information.
• Example:
• Premise: "If someone is rich, they must be happy."
• Conclusion: "John is happy because he drives a fancy car.”
• Men are human. Mary is human. Therefore, Mary is a man.
 10. EITHER/OR FALLACY:
FALSE DILEMMA
• The Either/Or fallacy, also known as False Dilemma, occurs when
someone presents only two options or possibilities when, in
reality, there are more options available. This fallacy creates a
false sense of dichotomy, forcing the audience to choose between
two extremes while ignoring other potential alternatives. The
fallacy is problematic because it forces people into an "all or
nothing" situation, limiting the options when more may exist.
Example:
• Premise: "Either you support the government's policies, or
you are against progress."
• Conclusion: "If you're not with us, you're against us."
 11. POST HOC: FAULTY CAUSE AND
EFFECT
• Faulty cause and effect, also known as post hoc ergo propter hoc
(Latin for "after this, therefore because of this"), is a logical
fallacy where someone assumes that because one event happened
after another, the first event caused the second one. This assumption
overlooks other possible explanations and falsely attributes causation
based solely on temporal sequence.
Example:
• Premise: "I wore my lucky socks to the exam, and I passed
with flying colours."
• Conclusion: "Wearing my lucky socks caused me to do well on
the exam.”
• “we’ve been in business 50 years – That makes us the best!
 12.GUILT BY ASSOCIATION

• Guilt by association is a fallacy where someone associates a

person or idea with negative characteristics based on irrelevant
connections or associations. It involves making unfair or
unwarranted judgments about someone or something by
linking them to something negative without any logical basis.
Example:
• Premise: "The new political candidate is endorsed by
several controversial figures."
• Conclusion: "Since these controversial figures support
the candidate, the candidate must share their
controversial views."
 13. FALSE NEEDS

• "False needs" is not a recognized logical fallacy in traditional logic,

but it can be interpreted as a rhetorical device or a form of
manipulation where someone creates or exaggerates a need that
doesn't actually exist in order to persuade others to act in a certain
way or to fulfill a particular agenda.
Example:
• An advertisement for a luxury car might suggest that owning their
vehicle is essential for achieving happiness and social status. The
implication is that without this car, one's life will be lacking or
incomplete.
• “If parents want intelligent children, they must buy Baby Mozart!”
IN CONCLUSION, ALWAYS BE ON
THE LOOKOUT FOR FAULTY
REASONING!