Elements Of
Telecommunication
CHAPTER 3
FILTERS
Aim
To provide participants with the fundamental knowledge of filter
networks so that they can design and implement the networks
in telecommunication circuit to enable frequency selection.
Objectives
At the end of the chapter participants should be able to:
• Define filters and give practical applications of filters in
telecommunication.
• Design filters using Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors and
crystals.
• Derive attenuation vs. Frequency characteristics and output
power vs. frequency characteristics of any filter network
• Underline the advantages of using m-derived and m-derived
half section filters in a network
• Describe how a piezoelectric crystal can be employed in a filter
network
Introduction
• “A filter” is a circuit which has the ability to discriminate
between signals at different frequencies
• It has an attenuation that varies with frequency in a particular
manner.
• If a signal with a number of different frequencies is applied to
its input
• some of those components will appear at its output terminals,
whilst others are greatly attenuated hence suppressed.
Types of filters
• Four basic types of filter are available for use in
telecommunication systems:
• the low-pass,
• the high-pass
• the band-pass and
• the band-stop.
• Below are the circuit symbols for each of these filters.
• Filters can be designed using one of the following different
techniques: inductor-capacitor filters, crystal filters and active
filters.
Filter Design
• The transmission of an unwanted frequency through a
network can be prevented either by
• connecting a high impedance (at that frequency) in series
• and/or by connecting a low impedance in shunt, with the signal
path.
• The high series impedance will oppose the flow of currents, at
the unwanted frequencies through the network.
• The shunt impedance will bypass unwanted currents to earth.
Inductor-Capacitor Filters
• The high series impedance will oppose the flow of currents, at
the unwanted frequencies, through the network
• The shunt impedance will bypass unwanted currents to earth.
• The necessary high and low values of impedance can be
obtained by the use of inductors and capacitors of appropriate
value.
• Inductor has a reactance which is directly proportional to
frequency
• The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to
frequency. If a particular band of frequencies to
Constant k filters
• The term "constant-k" is used to denote that the product of
the series and shunt impedances is a constant at all
frequencies.
Low-Pass
• Low pass filter allows low frequencies to pass whilst blocking high
frequencies.
• Should be able to pass, with zero attenuation, all frequencies from zero up
to a certain frequency which is known as the CUT-OFF FREQUENCY (Fc).
• At frequencies greater than the cut-off frequency the attenuation of the
filter will increase with increase in frequency.
• Total series impedance is ῳL and the total shunt impedance is.
• At low frequencies inductive reactance is low and the reactance of the
shunt capacitor C is high
• Inductance offers little opposition to the flow of current while the
capacitance has zero shunting effect.
• Low frequency signals are propagated through the filter without loss.
• As the frequency of the input signal is increased, the inductive reactance
will rise until, at the cut-off frequency fc, the attenuation of the filter
suddenly increases.
• The attenuation of the filter rises rapidly with increase in frequency.
Low-Pass
RC Low-Pass Filter
• A Low pass RC filter, again, is a
filter circuit composed of a
resistor and capacitor.
• It passes through low-frequency
signals
• While blocking high frequency
signals.
• The resistor is placed in series to
the input signal.
• The capacitor is placed in parallel
to the input signal.
High-Pass
• Transmits all frequencies which are higher than its out- off
frequency and to prevent the passage of all lower frequencies.
• At low frequencies the series capacitance C has a high
reactance and the shunt inductive reactance is low, so low-
frequency signals are attenuated as they travel through the
filter.
• At high frequencies, on, the other hand, the series reactance is
low and the shunt reactance is high and the filter offers zero
attenuation.
High-Pass
Band-Pass
• Ideally the filter passes with zero attenuation, a particular band
of frequencies and offers considerable attenuation to all
frequencies outside of this pass band.
• The required characteristic is obtained by using two series-
tuned circuits as the series impedance and a single parallel-
tuned circuit as the shunt impedance.
• The three circuits are arranged to be resonant at the same
frequency.
• For signal at or near this common resonant frequency, the
series reactance is low and the shunt reactance is high so that
the filter offers, ideally, zero attenuation.
• At frequencies either side of the required pass band the tuned
circuit impedance have varied to such an extent that
considerable attenuation is offered.
Band-Pass
Band-Stop
• This type of filter provides a large attenuation to signals whose
frequencies are within a particular frequency band.
Resistor-Capacitor Filters
Band-pass filter band-stop filter
M-derived Filters
The Constant-k filter suffers from two major disadvantages,
these are
• the attenuation/ frequency characteristics do not rise at the
Cut-off frequency as sharply as is often required, and
• its input and output impedance vary with frequency. In m-
derived filter, components are added to the basic constant-k
circuit to ensure that a very high attenuation is obtained at a
particular frequency.
• The attenuation can be made to reach very high value at a
desired frequency f(lnf) by multiplying the values of its
components by a constant m and connecting an inductor Lm of
Suitable value in series with the shunt capacitor
• Neglecting circuit resistance, the filter will now have infinite
attenuation at the frequency at which the shunt series-tuned
circuit is resonant and hence has zero impedance.
• the attenuation rises above zero at the cut-off frequency fc and
increases to a very high value at some frequency f (inf).
• Unfortunately, at frequencies above the attenuation of the
filter falls and will eventually reach a low value.
EXAMPLE 1
A constant-k low-pass filter has cut-off frequency of 12 kHz.
Determine the value of m for the corresponding m-derived filter
in order to position maximum attenuation at:-
• 13. 8 kHz
• 19.8 kHz.
SOLUTION
• therefore, from graph, m=0.5
• therefore, from graph, m=0.8
Half-section T low-pass filter
• For m is chosen to be 0.6 the impedance measured at the terminals 1-1 does
not vary with frequency, while the impedance "seen" looking into terminals 2-2
varies with frequency in the same way as the impedance of a whole section,
constant-k or m-derived.
• Such a half-section can be used to terminate both ends of a filter to ensure that
the filter present constant values of impedance at both its input and its output
terminals.
• The attenuation of an m-derived filter section decreases with
increase in frequency above the frequency of maximum
attenuation.
• This disadvantage can be overcome by connecting constant-k
filter section in cascade to ensure substantial attenuation at all
frequencies above cut-off.
SYMBOLS
CRYSTAL FILTERS
• For some applications the maximum selectivity a band pass LC
filter can attain is inadequate, and in such cases a crystal filter
can be employed.
• A crystal filter is one in which the required series and shunt
impedances are provided by piezoelectric crystals.
PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS
• A piezoelectric crystal is a material, such as quartz, having the
property that, if Subjected to a mechanical stress, a potential
difference is developed across it, and if the stress is reversed a
p.d. of opposite polarity is developed.
• Conversely, the application of a potential difference to a
piezoelectric crystal causes the crystal to be stressed in a
direction depending on the polarity of the applied voltage.
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT
• The inductance L represents the
inertia of the mass of the crystal
Plate when it is Vibrating;
• the capacitance C1 represents the
Reciprocal of the stiffness of the
crystal plate; and
• the Resistance R represents the
frictional losses of the vibrating
plate.
• The capacitance C2 is the actual
capacitance of the crystal (a
piezoelectric crystal is an electrical
insulator and is mounted between
two conducting plates).
• It has two resonant frequencies: the
resonant frequency of the series arm
R-L-C1 and the parallel resonance
produced by C2 and the effective
inductance of the series arm at a
frequency above its (series) resonant
frequency.
• If a pair of similar crystals is connected in the series arms of a
lattice network and another pair connected in the shunt arms,
the network will possess a band-pass characteristic, provide
that the series resonant frequency of one pair is equal to the
parallel-resonant frequency of the other pair.
• If the bandwidth is not wide enough it can be increased by the
connection of an inductor of suitable value in series with the
crystal.
• Crystal filters of the lattice type are widely employed in multi-
channel telephony systems.
• Other simpler versions of crystal filters are commercially
available for use as band-pass filters in radio receivers.
FILTERS IN PARALLEL
• Frequency-division multiplex is the transmission of two or
more channels, over a single circuit by the positioning of the
channels at different part of the frequency spectrum of that
circuit.
• At the receiving end of an f.d.m. system the received signals
must be directed, to their correct channels and this is achieved
by means of a number of band-pass filters connected in
parallel.
• Since a small frequency gap, about 900Hz exists between
adjacent pass-bands the filters can be paralleled directly and
connected to their common load.
ACTIVE FILTERS
