EE-604

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS

CHAPTER No. 18
(2022-EE-18) MOAZ ARSHAD QURESHI
Mass , Force and Torque Measurement
DR ABDUL SATTAR MALIK
Introduction
Mass (Weight) Measurement
Force Measurement
Torque Measurement
Calibration of Mass, Force, and Torque
Measuring Sensors
Summary
1. Mass, Force, and Torque:
Mass: Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in a body. It is an intrinsic property that
doesn't change regardless of the object's location. It is often measured in kilograms or
grams.
Force: Force is the interaction that causes an object to change its state of motion.
According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, force is defined as the product of mass and
acceleration:
Force=Mass × Acceleration
In simpler terms, the force applied to an object depends on how massive the object is and
how much its velocity changes over time (i.e., acceleration). Force can be applied in any
direction, either horizontally or vertically.
Weight: Weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object. When a mass is subjected to
gravity, the force that pulls it downward is called weight. This is a specific type of force and
is defined as:
Weight=Mass × Acceleration due to gravity
Torque: Torque is a rotational version of force. When a force is applied to an object at a
distance from its axis of rotation, it produces a turning effect called torque. This is
similar to how force causes linear motion, but here, the object rotates around a fixed
axis. Torque is calculated as:
Torque= Force × Distance from axis of rotation
Torque plays a crucial role in rotating objects, like turning a wrench or rotating a
wheel.

2. Methods of Measuring Mass (Weight):

Mass is often measured by determining the weight of an object because the two are
closely related through the force of gravity. There are several ways to measure this
weight:
Load Cells: A load cell is an instrument used to measure force (weight in this case)
by converting the force into an electrical signal. The load cell measures the
downward force F exerted by an object due to gravity, and the mass M is calculated
from the equation:
M=F/g
Spring Balance: A spring balance is another common tool for measuring force. It uses a
spring that stretches or compresses under the force applied to it (i.e., weight). The
displacement of the spring is proportional to the weight. Similar to load cells, the mass
is calculated by knowing the gravitational acceleration. The spring balance is also a
deflection-type instrument, meaning the operator just reads the displacement to
determine the weight of an object.
Mass Balance: A mass balance measures mass by comparing the gravitational force
acting on the object being measured to the gravitational force on a standard known
mass. Unlike the load cell or spring balance, mass balances do not rely on the specific
value of gravitational acceleration. This is because both the object and the standard
mass experience the same gravitational pull. Mass balances are typically null-type
instruments, meaning they only give a reading when the forces are in equilibrium.
While these instruments give an accurate and absolute measurement of mass, they are
more complex and require manual adjustment, making them less convenient than load
cells or spring balances.
Explanation of Electronic Load Cells and Other Types of Load Cells
This section covers various types of load cells used to measure mass, with a particular focus
on electronic load cells, which are now the most commonly used form. These devices rely on
measuring the displacement caused by the force of gravity on an object, and several types of
displacement transducers are employed in load cells, such as strain gauges, differential
transformers, and piezoelectric devices.
1. Electronic Load Cells:
Electronic load cells are the preferred choice in many applications due to their accuracy,
ease of use, and wide range of measurement capabilities.
Working Principle: The gravitational force applied to the object being weighed causes
deflection in an elastic element. This deflection is proportional to the mass of the object,
and the measurement task is then converted into a displacement measurement.
Design and Types of Load Cells:
Elastic Elements: These elements are specially designed to ensure that the deflection due to
force is linear and that the device is insensitive to forces that aren't applied directly along the
sensing axis. The elastic elements may come in different shapes, like the parallelogram-cut
proving frame
Compression and Tension Load Cells: There are two primary types:

Compression Type: The mass is placed on top of a platform, which compresses the cell.
Tension Type: The mass is hung from the load cell, causing the cell to stretch.

Displacement Transducers: These transducers measure the deflection of the elastic element. The most
common displacement transducer is the strain gauge, which offers the best accuracy (less than 0.05%
inaccuracy).

Measurement Range: Electronic load cells can measure a broad range of masses, from as low as 0.1 kg to
over 3000 tones.

Alternative Transducers: Other displacement transducers include:

LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer): Used for masses up to 25 tones, but they have a higher
inaccuracy of about 0.2% and are not as accurate as strain gauges. However, they have the advantage of
longevity and minimal maintenance.

Piezoelectric Devices: These are used for masses between 0 and 1000 tones. These devices use
piezoelectric crystals to replace the traditional elastic elements. However, they are only suitable for
measuring dynamically changing forces and have a lower accuracy (about 1%) compared to other types.
km
• Advantages of Electronic Load Cells:
Cost-Effective: They are relatively low-cost.
Wide Measurement Range: They can measure a wide range of masses, from small items to
extremely heavy ones.
Environmental Tolerance: Electronic load cells can tolerate dusty and corrosive environments.
Remote Measurement: Some electronic load cells allow for remote measurement.
Shock Loading: They can handle sudden changes in load without significant damage.
Ease of Installation: These devices are user-friendly and easy to set up.

Problems with Electronic Load Cells:

Creep: One potential issue is creep, which refers to the permanent deformation of the elastic
element over time under constant load. This can cause measurement errors, leading to bias in
readings unless the instrument is recalibrated periodically. However, careful design and the right
materials can help mitigate this problem.
Electronic Balance: In some applications, such as weighing large or complex objects, multiple
compression-type load cells are used together in a platform known as an electronic balance. These
balances may use three or four load cells, and the final mass reading is the sum of the outputs from
each load cell. This is particularly useful when weighing large or irregularly shaped objects. In some
cases, the top platform can be replaced with a tank to weigh liquids.
.Pneumatic and Hydraulic Load Cells:
While electronic load cells are the most widely used, pneumatic and hydraulic load cells
are also used, though they are less common today.

Pneumatic Load Cells:

Working Principle: Pneumatic load cells convert mass measurement into a pressure
measurement. When a mass is applied to the load cell, it causes deflection of a diaphragm,
which acts as a variable restriction in a nozzle-flapper mechanism. This deflection leads to a
change in air pressure, which is measured and is proportional to the gravitational force on
the mass.

Measurement Range: Pneumatic load cells can measure a wide range of masses, from
small (25 kg) to large (25 tones), with typical accuracy of 0.5% of full-scale readings.

Advantages: These load cells are relatively inexpensive, simple, and have low maintenance
requirements.
z
Hydraulic Load Cells:
Working Principle: Hydraulic load cells work similarly to pneumatic load cells but use oil
in place of air. When the gravitational force is applied, it compresses the oil inside an
enclosed chamber, and the corresponding pressure increase is measured by a suitable
pressure transducer.
Measurement Range: These load cells can handle much larger masses, typically ranging
from small loads up to 500 tones. Some hydraulic load cells can measure masses as
large as 50,000 tones.
Accuracy: Hydraulic load cells are highly accurate, with typical inaccuracy of 0.05% of
full scale. However, they require correction for local gravity (g) for accurate readings.
Resolution: With careful calibration, these devices can achieve a measurement
resolution of 0.02%.
.
Explanation of Intelligent Load Cells and Mass Balance Instruments
1. Intelligent Load Cells:
Intelligent load cells are essentially standard load cells that have been enhanced with a
microprocessor to add advanced computational capabilities. While the core function of the load cell
— measuring mass or force — remains unchanged, the microprocessor adds a layer of intelligence for
more complex tasks.
Key Features of Intelligent Load Cells:
Microprocessor Integration: The addition of a microprocessor allows the load cell to compute
additional values, such as the cost of the measured weight, by using stored cost per unit weight
information. This means the load cell can directly provide the cost of an item based on its mass, which
is useful for industries that require such real-time calculations.
Digital Output: The output of an intelligent load cell is digital, meaning the measurements are
displayed on a digital screen, offering precise and easy-to-read results.
Flexibility: Intelligent load cells can store cost per weight values for many substances, making them
highly flexible in different operational contexts. This is especially useful in weighing applications
where different materials are weighed frequently.
Fault Detection: In systems where multiple load cells are used, such as in an electronic balance
platform (with load cells at each corner), the microprocessor can help detect any faults. If there are
significant discrepancies in the readings from different load cells, the system can flag it as an issue.
• Advantages:
They provide additional functionality (like cost calculations).
Useful in situations requiring multiple load cells (e.g., platforms with several cells).
Can assist in error detection and ensure more reliable measurements.
2. Mass Balance (Weighing) Instruments:
Mass balance instruments operate based on the principle of comparing the
gravitational force on the unknown mass with that on a known mass. These include
instruments like beam balances, pendulum scales, weigh beams, and electromagnetic
balances.
Beam Balance (Equal Arm Balance):
Working Principle: In a beam balance, a standard mass is added to one pan, and the
unknown mass is placed on the other. The two masses balance each other when the
forces are equal. The equilibrium is indicated by a pointer moving against a calibrated
scale.
Advantages:
Capable of measuring a wide range of masses (from 0.01 g to 1000 g).
Very high measurement resolution (up to 1 part in 10710^7 of the full scale).
Inaccuracy as low as 0.002%.
l
 Disadvantages:
Lack of ruggedness: The beam balance is sensitive to shock loading, and continuous use
can degrade its accuracy.
Slow measurement: Each measurement takes time, which makes it unsuitable for day-
to-day production environments. It is typically used as a calibration standard rather than
in routine operations.

Weigh Beam:
Working Principle: The weigh beam is similar to the beam balance but is designed to be
more rugged. In one form, standard masses are added to balance the unknown mass,
with fine adjustments made by moving known masses along a graduated bar. In another
form, multiple bars with different standard masses are used.
Capacity: Weigh beams are capable of measuring large masses (up to 50 tonnes).
Advantages:
More durable than beam balances, making them suitable for industrial environments.
.
Pendulum Scale:
Use: The pendulum scale is suitable for calibrating masses between 1 kg and 500 tones.
Requirements: The pendulum scale needs to be built to a high standard, with special
attention to cleanliness and lubrication of the moving parts.
Functionality: Similar to the weigh beam, it uses the force of gravity to measure mass,
but its precision is dependent on the mechanical condition of its components.
Electromagnetic Balance:
Use: Electromagnetic balances are used for high-precision mass calibration, particularly
for masses between 100 g and 10 kg. It is often preferred for its high accuracy,
particularly for calibration of masses in this range.
Accuracy:
In the 100 g to 10 kg range, accuracy can reach up to 0.0001%.
The accuracy decreases with both larger and smaller masses: for example, 0.002% at 5
tonnes and 0.03% at 10 mg.
Advantages: The optical system used in these balances allows for the magnification of
motion around the null point, improving accuracy.
pendulum scale

The pendulum scale is another instrument that works on the mass-

balance principle.
In one arrangement, the unknown mass is put on a platform that is
attached by steel tapes to a pair of cams. Downward motion of the
platform, and hence rotation of the cams, under the influence of the
gravitational force on the mass, is opposed by the gravitational force
acting on two pendulum-type masses attached to the cams.
The amount of rotation of the cams when the equilibrium position is
reached is determined by the deflection of a pointer against a scale. The
shape of the cams is such that this output deflection is linearly
proportional to the applied mass.
Various versions of the instrument can measure masses in the range
between 1 kg and 500 tone, with a typical measurement inaccuracy of
0.1%.
n
Electromagnetic Balance:

Working Principle: The electromagnetic balance uses a current-carrying coil suspended in a

permanent magnetic field. The torque produced by this system is used to balance the
unknown mass against the gravitational force on a standard mass.
Advantages:
Smaller size and insensitivity to environmental changes.
Provides an electrical output, making it more modern and easier to interface with other
equipment.

Disadvantages:
Less commonly used now due to the development of newer technologies like electronic
balances.
m
3. Spring Balance:
Spring balances are simple devices used to measure mass or weight based on the
deflection of a spring when a mass is hung from it.
Working Principle: The spring deflects when a mass is hung from it, and the deflection is
read against a scale. The force is proportional to the mass due to gravity.
Measurement Range: Spring balances can measure masses between 0.5 kg and 10 tones.
Inaccuracy: Typically less than 0.2% if compensation is made for environmental changes
(such as temperature).
Disadvantages:
Environmental Sensitivity: The accuracy is highly dependent on the spring's characteristics,
which can change due to temperature and other environmental factors.
Lower precision compared to other methods like electronic load cells.
Force and Torque Measurement
This section explores various methods for measuring force and torque, focusing on
techniques like accelerometers, vibrating wire sensors, load cells, and methods of torque
measurement. Additionally, it discusses the calibration challenges related to mass, force,
and torque measuring instruments, including gravitational variations and air buoyancy
effects.

1. Force Measurement
Force measurement refers to the quantification of horizontal forces that stretch or
compress objects. The force F applied to a body of mass M causes the body to accelerate
according to Newton's second law of motion:
F= MA
where A is the acceleration experienced by the body. The standard unit of force is the
Newton (N), where one Newton is defined as the force that will accelerate a 1 kg mass by 1
m/s².
Methods of Force Measurement:
Using Accelerometers:
Concept: An accelerometer can measure the acceleration produced when a force is applied
to a known mass. However, this method is limited in practical applications since most
forces are part of complex systems that cannot be easily decoupled.
Use Cases: It is useful in situations where forces are transient (e.g., in space vehicles, where
thrust motor forces need to be calibrated) but not in systems where the mass cannot freely
accelerate.
Vibrating Wire Sensor:
Concept: A vibrating wire sensor works by keeping a wire vibrating at its resonant
frequency, which changes as the wire is tensioned by an applied force. The resonant
frequency f is given by:
B
M is the mass per unit length of the wire,
L is the length of the wire,
T is the tension (force applied).

Principle: When a force is applied, it changes the tension in the wire, which alters the
resonant frequency. Measuring this frequency provides a means to calculate the applied
force. The system typically consists of an oscillator, amplifier, and permanent magnet to
maintain vibration.

Load Cells:
Concept: Load cells designed to measure horizontal forces deform under applied force, and
this deformation is converted into an electrical signal. These sensors are useful in various
industrial applications to measure forces in systems where horizontal forces are involved.
.Torque Measurement
Torque, or the rotational equivalent of force, is critical in evaluating rotating systems such
as motors and shafts to prevent failure due to shear stresses. Torque measurement
methods ensure that the rotating components are adequately designed to withstand these
stresses.
Common Methods of Torque Measurement:

Measurement of Induced Strain:

Concept: This method involves bonding strain gauges onto a rotating shaft. These strain
gauges form part of a DC bridge circuit, and the output of this bridge is a function of the
induced strain due to the applied torque.

Key Consideration: The strain gauges need to be precisely positioned to ensure accuracy,
making the setup relatively expensive. For rotating shafts, electrical connections to the
strain gauges are typically made through slip rings.
Ideal for: Measuring stalled torque in a shaft before rotation begins.
Optical Torque Measurement:
Concept: Optical systems use laser diodes and fiber-optic cables to measure torque. The
system typically involves black-and-white striped wheels mounted at the ends of a rotating
shaft. A laser light is directed at these wheels, and the reflected light pulses are analyzed to
detect the phase difference caused by applied torque.

Advantages:

Compact size.
Low cost compared to traditional methods.
No physical contact between the shaft and the sensor, which reduces mechanical wear.
Working Principle: When torque is applied to the shaft, the striped wheels rotate,
modulating the reflected light's phase. The receiver detects this phase difference, allowing
the calculation of the applied torque.
m
Reaction Forces in Shaft Bearings
Concept: Torque can also be measured by cradling the shaft in bearings at either the power
source or power absorber end. The reaction force F and the arm length L are measured, and
the torque T is calculated as:
T= FL
Key Issues: The method is prone to errors due to bearing friction and windage torques, which
make it less accurate.
Practical Use: This method is no longer common due to better alternatives.
v
Prony Brake:
Concept: The Prony brake is a mechanical system where a rope is wound around a rotating
shaft. The force exerted by the rope is measured using a spring balance. The torque is
calculated as:
T= Fe Re
where Fe is the effective force exerted by the rope on the shaft, and Re is the effective radius
of the rope around the shaft.
Limitations: High friction generates significant heat, requiring water cooling to prevent
damage. This method is rarely used today.
One end of the rope is attached to a spring balance and the other end
carries a load in the form of a standard mass, m. If the measured force in
the spring balance is Fs, then the effective force, Fe, exerted by the rope
on the shaft is given by

If the radius of the shaft is Rs and that of the rope is Rr, then the effective
radius, Re, of the rope and drum with respect to the axis of rotation of the
shaft is given by
l
 Calibration of Mass, Force, and Torque Measuring Sensors
Calibration of mass, force, and torque measuring instruments involves ensuring that these
devices give accurate and consistent readings. However, there are some inherent
challenges in calibration, particularly due to gravitational variations and air buoyancy
effects.
Challenges in Calibration:
Variability in Gravitational Force (g):
The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) varies based on latitude and altitude. For
instance:
At the equator, g=978.0 m/ s²
At the poles, g=983.2 m/ s²
For practical purposes, a working value of 980.7 m/s² is often used, especially in regions
with negligible variations in g.
Mass Calibration:
Method: Standard masses are used to calibrate the mass sensor. Instruments like beam
balances, electromagnetic balances, and proof-ring based load cells are used to ensure the
sensor is accurate.
Beam Balance Use:
A beam balance is used for high-accuracy calibration of masses between 10 mg and 1 kg.
Proper maintenance of the balance, especially the knife edges, is crucial to ensuring
accuracy.

Mass Calibration Instruments

Weigh Beam:
Use: The weigh beam is employed as a calibration standard for large masses, with a
capacity of up to 50 tones.
Requirements: It must be manufactured and maintained to a high standard to ensure
accuracy.
Functionality: It operates by comparing the mass to be calibrated with standard masses,
providing a reliable means of mass measurement in this range .
Proof Ring-based Load Cell:
Use: Proof ring-based load cells are used for calibrating masses between 150 kg and 2000
tones.
Mechanism: These load cells measure displacement of the proof ring using either an LVDT
(Linear Variable Differential Transformer) or micrometer.
Inaccuracy: The lowest achievable measurement inaccuracy is around 0.1%.
Force/Deflection Graph: Since the relationship between applied mass/force and
displacement is non-linear, a force-deflection graph is used to interpret the readings.

Force Sensor Calibration

Force sensors are commonly calibrated using machines that apply known force values to
the sensor being tested. These machines are large, expensive, and typically used by
specialist calibration companies or manufacturers of the measuring devices. The calibration
process ensures that the sensor provides accurate readings over time and traceability to
national reference standards is maintained.
Calibration Process: The machine generates a set of known forces, and the output of the force
sensor is compared against these forces to ensure its accuracy.
Frequency of Calibration: Manufacturers or calibration companies often provide
recommendations regarding the frequency of calibration to ensure measurement reliability
and traceability to reference standards.

Torque Measurement System Calibration

Just like force sensors, torque measurement systems are calibrated using special machines
that apply known torque values. These machines are costly, which is why specialist calibration
companies or manufacturers are often used to calibrate these systems.
Calibration Machines: These machines apply a calibrated torque to the system, and the
output is compared to known values to verify the accuracy of the torque measurement
system.
Frequency of Calibration: As with force sensors, calibration frequency is determined by the
manufacturer or the calibration company to ensure that torque measurements remain
traceable and accurate.
Summary of Key Points
Mass Measurement:
Mass is measured using instruments like load cells, spring balances, and mass balance
instruments.
Load cells, especially electronic load cells, are the preferred choice for most mass
measurements between 0.1 kg and 3000 tones.
Pneumatic and hydraulic load cells are older technologies but still used in some contexts
(e.g., measuring large masses up to 50,000 tones).
Intelligent load cells represent an advanced technology that allows for more versatile and
accurate mass measurement.
Force Measurement:
Transients forces can be measured using accelerometers, while static forces are typically
measured using vibrating wire sensors or specialized load cells.
Torque Measurement:
Torque measurement has moved toward modern methods like strain gauges and optical
systems, with older methods like reaction force measurement and the Prony brake now rarely
used.
Calibration Techniques:
Mass measuring sensors are calibrated using standard masses (e.g., weigh beams,
pendulum scales, and electromagnetic balances).
Both force and torque sensors require specialized machines for calibration that generate
known forces or torques, and calibration is typically done by specialist companies or
manufacturers.

Impact of Gravitational Variations:

The accuracy of load cells can be affected by variations in gravitational acceleration (g),
although these errors are usually small and can be neglected in most applications.
Conclusion
This chapter covered the essential techniques for measuring mass, force, and torque,
emphasizing the importance of calibration. From the beam balance for mass measurements
to the optical torque measurement systems for torque, each instrument plays a crucial role
in ensuring that measurements are accurate and reliable. The chapter also highlighted the
need for specialized calibration equipment and services, given the expense and complexity
of the machines required to calibrate force and torque sensors. Understanding these
techniques ensures that accurate data is maintained across industries and scientific
disciplines where precise measurements are critical.
Problems
18.1. What is the difference between mass and weight? Discuss briefly the three main
methods of measuring the mass of a body.
18.2. Explain, using a sketch as appropriate, how each of the following forms of load cells
work: (a) electronic, (b) pneumatic, (c) hydraulic, and (d) intelligent.
18.3. Discuss the main characteristics of the four kinds of load cells mentioned in Problem
18.2. Which form is most common, and why?
18.4. Discuss briefly the working characteristics of each of the following: (a) beam balance,
(b) weigh beam, and (c) pendulum scale.
with other forms of mass-measuring instruments?
18.6. What are the available techniques for measuring force acting in a horizontal direction?
18.5. How does a spring balance work? What are its advantages and disadvantages
compared
18.7. Discuss briefly the four main methods used to measure torque.
18.8. Discuss the general principles of calibrating mass-measuring instruments.
18.9. Which instruments are used as a reference standard in mass calibration? What
special precautions have to be taken in manufacturing and using such reference
THE END