CNS Cortex Histology
An In-Depth Exploration of the
Cerebral and Cerebellar Cortex
Introduction
• The CNS cortex consists of the cerebral and
cerebellar cortex, forming the outer gray
matter.
Neocortex vs. Allocortex
• Neocortex: 6 layers; Allocortex: fewer layers,
includes paleocortex and archicortex.
Histology of the Cerebral Cortex
• The cerebral cortex is organized into six layers,
each with distinct neuronal compositions.
Layer I: Molecular Layer
• Contains few neurons, mostly axons and
dendrites, important for intracortical
communication.
Layer II: External Granular Layer
• Small pyramidal and stellate cells involved in
cortico-cortical connections.
Layer III: External Pyramidal Layer
• Contains medium-sized pyramidal cells
projecting to other cortical regions.
Layer IV: Internal Granular Layer
• Major recipient of thalamocortical input,
densely packed with stellate cells.
Layer V: Internal Pyramidal Layer
• Large pyramidal cells, including Betz cells,
involved in motor output.
Layer VI: Multiform Layer
• Contains diverse neuron types, connects to
subcortical structures.
Cerebral Cortex Functional Areas
• Divided into motor, sensory, and association
areas based on function.
Motor Cortex
• Located in the precentral gyrus, responsible
for voluntary movement.
Sensory Cortex
• Located in the postcentral gyrus, processes
tactile and proprioceptive input.
Association Areas
• Integrate sensory and motor information for
higher cognitive functions.
Types of Neurons in the Cerebral
Cortex
• Includes pyramidal, stellate, chandelier,
Martinotti, and Cajal-Retzius cells.
Pyramidal Cells
• Excitatory neurons using glutamate,
responsible for cortical output.
Stellate Cells
• Interneurons, can be excitatory or inhibitory,
mostly in layer IV.
Chandelier Cells
• Inhibitory interneurons that target axon initial
segments of pyramidal cells.
Martinotti Cells
• Inhibitory interneurons sending axons to the
superficial layers.
Cajal-Retzius Cells
• Rare neurons involved in cortical
development, producing Reelin.
Glial Cells in the Cortex
• Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia
support neurons and synaptic function.
Astrocytes
• Regulate synaptic activity, blood-brain barrier,
and nutrient supply.
Oligodendrocytes
• Produce myelin sheaths in the CNS, aiding in
neural conduction.
Microglia
• Resident immune cells that remove debris and
modulate inflammation.
Cerebellar Cortex Overview
• Responsible for motor coordination, balance,
and fine movement control.
Three Layers of the Cerebellar
Cortex
• Molecular layer, Purkinje cell layer, and
granular layer.
Molecular Layer
• Contains axons, dendrites, and inhibitory
interneurons (stellate and basket cells).
Purkinje Cell Layer
• Single row of large Purkinje cells that send
inhibitory output to deep cerebellar nuclei.
Granular Layer
• Densely packed granule cells, the most
numerous neurons in the brain.
Comparison: Cerebral vs.
Cerebellar Cortex
• Cerebral: cognition; Cerebellar: motor
coordination.
Cerebral Cortex Development
• Neuronal migration, differentiation, and
synaptogenesis during embryogenesis.
Cortical Plasticity
• Neuroplasticity allows the cortex to adapt in
response to learning and injury.
Neurotransmitters in the Cortex
• Glutamate (excitatory) and GABA (inhibitory)
are the main neurotransmitters.
Blood Supply of the Cortex
• Mainly supplied by the anterior, middle, and
posterior cerebral arteries.
Blood-Brain Barrier
• Tight junctions in endothelial cells regulate
molecular exchange.
Pathological Conditions Affecting
the Cortex
• Includes stroke, neurodegenerative diseases,
and cortical malformations.
Alzheimer’s Disease
• Characterized by cortical atrophy, amyloid
plaques, and neurofibrillary tangles.
Parkinson’s Disease
• Involves dopaminergic neuron loss affecting
cortical and subcortical structures.
Epilepsy
• Abnormal cortical electrical activity leading to
seizures.
Stroke and Ischemia
• Restricted blood flow leads to neuronal death
in affected cortical regions.
Cortical Trauma
• Includes traumatic brain injury (TBI) and
concussions.
Neuroimaging of the Cortex
• MRI and fMRI reveal cortical structure and
activity.
Cortical Lesions and Their Effects
• Damage to specific areas results in distinct
neurological deficits.
Comparative Histology: Human vs.
Animal Cortex
• Structural differences in cortical layers across
species.
Cortical Cytoarchitecture
• Regional variations in neuron density and
organization.
Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas
• Specialized regions for language production
and comprehension.
Cortical Columns
• Basic functional units of cortical processing.
Cortical Excitation and Inhibition
Balance
• Dysfunction leads to disorders like epilepsy
and schizophrenia.
Neural Connectivity in the Cortex
• Intrinsic and extrinsic connections enable
complex processing.
Cortex and Memory Processing
• Involvement of the hippocampus and
neocortex in memory storage.
Future Research in Cortex
Histology
• Advances in microscopy and molecular
neuroscience.
Conclusion
• The CNS cortex is a highly structured and
functionally diverse region of the brain.
