Sampling Techniques

& Samples Types

 Outlines
 Sample definition
 Purpose of sampling
 Stages in the selection of a sample
 Types of sampling in quantitative researches
 Types of sampling in qualitative researches
 Ethical Considerations in Data Collection
 What is research?

•“Scientific research is systematic, controlled,

empirical, and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the
presumed relations among such phenomena.”
(Kerlinger, 1986)

•Research is an organized and systematic way of

finding answers to questions

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Important Components of Empirical Research
 Problem statement, research questions, purposes,
benefits
 Theory, assumptions, background literature
 Variables and hypotheses
 Operational definitions and measurement
 Research design and methodology
 Instrumentation, sampling
 Data analysis
 Conclusions, interpretations, recommendations
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The process of selecting a number of
individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals represent the larger group from
which they were selected
SAMPLING
• A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative)
collection of units from a population used to
determine truths about that population” (Field, 2005)
• Why sample?
• Resources (time, money) and workload
• Gives results with known accuracy that can be
calculated mathematically
• The sampling frame is the list from which the
potential respondents are drawn or A list of all
elements or other units containing the elements in a
population.
• Registrar’s office
• Class rosters
• Must assess sampling frame errors

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SAMPLING
• What is your population of interest?
• To whom do you want to generalize your
results?
• All doctors
• School children
• Indians
• Women aged 15-45 years
• Other
• Can you sample the entire population?

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 SAMPLING

• 3 factors that influence sample representative-ness

• Sampling procedure
• Sample size
• Participation (response)

• When might you sample the entire population?

• When your population is very small
• When you have extensive resources
• When you don’t expect a very high response

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 STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully
representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)

 The sampling frame

A list of all elements or other units containing the

elements in a population.

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Population…

…the larger group fro m which

individuals are selected to
participate in a study
Target population
A set of elements larger than or different
from the population sampled and to which
the researcher would
like to generalize
study findings.
Population definition
A population can be defined as including all people or
items with the characteristic one wishes to understand.
Because there is very rarely enough time or money to
gather information from everyone or everything in a
population, the goal becomes finding a representative
sample (or subset) of that population.

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 Population definition

Note also that the population from which the sample is drawn may not
be the same as the population about which we actually want
information. Often there is large but not complete overlap between
these two groups due to frame issues etc .
Sometimes they may be entirely separate - for instance, we might
study rats in order to get a better understanding of human health, or we
might study records from people born in 2008 in order to make
predictions about people born in 2009.
 SAMPLING FRAME
In the most straightforward case, such as the sentencing of a
batch of material from production (acceptance sampling by lots),
it is possible to identify and measure every single item in the
population and to include any one of them in our sample.
However, in the more general case this is not possible. There is
no way to identify all rats in the set of all rats. Where voting is
not compulsory, there is no way to identify which people will
actually vote at a forthcoming election (in advance of the
election)
As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has the property
that we can identify every single element and include any in our
sample .
The sampling frame must be representative of the population

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 To gather data about the population in order
to make an inference that can be
generalized to the population
Stages in the
Define the target population
Selection
of a Sample
Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability

sampling method will be chosen

Plan procedure for selecting

sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork
 Purpose – to identify participants from
whom to seek some information
 Issues
◦ Nature of the sample (random samples)
◦ Size of the sample
◦ Method of selecting the sample
 Important issues
◦ Representation – t he extent to which
the
sample is representative of the population
◦ Generalization – the extent to which the
results of the study can be reasonably
extended from the sample to the population
◦ Sampling error
The chance occurrence that a randomly selected
sample is not representative of the population
due to errors inherent in the sampling technique
 Important issues (continued)
◦ Sampling bias
 Some aspect of the researcher’s sampling
design creates bias in the data.
◦ Three fundamental steps
 Identify a population
 Define the sample size
 Select the sample
 Non-
Probability probability
samples
samples
 Types of Samples

• Probability (Random) Samples

• Simple random sample
• Systematic random sample
• Stratified random sample
• Multistage sample
• Multiphase sample
• Cluster sample
• Non-Probability Samples
• Convenience sample
• Purposive sample
• Quota

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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in
the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected
in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined.

• When every element in the population does have the same

probability of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of
selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to as
'self-weighting' because all sampled units are given the same
weight.

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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Probability sampling includes:
• Simple Random Sampling,
• Systematic Sampling,
• Stratified Random Sampling,
• Cluster Sampling
• Multistage Sampling.
• Multiphase sampling

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 NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Any sampling method where some elements of population have no
chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of selection can't
be accurately determined. It involves the selection of elements based
on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms the
criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is
nonrandom, nonprobability sampling not allows the estimation of
sampling errors..
• Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview
the first person to answer the door. In any household with more than
one occupant, this is a nonprobability sample, because some people
are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who
spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer than an
employed housemate who might be at work when the interviewer
calls) and it's not practical to calculate these probabilities.

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 NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING…….

Nonprobability Sampling includes:

• Accidental Sampling,
• Quota Sampling
• Purposive Sampling.
In addition, nonresponse effects may turn any probability
design into a nonprobability design if the characteristics of
nonresponse are not well understood, since nonresponse
effectively modifies each element's probability of being
sampled.

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 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
Definition: Every individual in the population has an equal chance of
being selected.
• Sample Size: Calculated using the population size and desired
confidence level.
• Considerations: Requires a complete list of the population. -
Example: If you have a population of 100 students and you
randomly select 20 of them for a survey using a random number
generator.
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily
available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each
element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done by
assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine
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 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

Estimates are easy to calculate.

Simple random sampling is always an EPS design,
but not all EPS designs are simple random
sampling.

Disadvantages
If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.
Minority subgroups of interest in population may
not be present in sample in sufficient numbers for
study.
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 REPLACEMENT OF SELECTED UNITS
Sampling schemes may be without replacement
('WOR' - no element can be selected more than
once in the same sample) or with replacement
('WR' - an element may appear multiple times in
the one sample).
For example, if we catch fish, measure them, and
immediately return them to the water before
continuing with the sample, this is a WR design,
because we might end up catching and measuring
the same fish more than once. However, if we do
not return the fish to the water (e.g. if we eat the
fish), this becomes a WOR design.

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 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Definition: Selecting every nth individual from a list after
randomizing the starting point.
Sample Size: Similar to simple random sampling.
Considerations: Dependent on the order of the list.
Example: Choosing every 5th patient from a list of
hospital admissions after randomizing the starting point.
Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target
population according to some ordering scheme and then
selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered
list.
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Systematic sampling involves a random start and then
proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then
onwards. In this case, k=(population size/sample size).
It is important that the starting point is not automatically the
first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within
the first to the kth element in the list.
A simple example would be to select every 10th name from
the telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred
to as 'sampling with a skip of 10').

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 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
• As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS
method, because all elements have the same
probability of selection (in the example given, one in
ten).
• It is not 'simple random sampling' because different
subsets of the same size have different selection
probabilities - e.g. the set {4,14,24,...,994} has a
one-in-ten probability of selection, but the set
{4,13,24,34,...} has zero probability of selection.

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 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
ADVANTAGES:
• Sample easy to select
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference population
DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population coincides
with that of selection.
• Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.

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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
• Definition: Population divided into subgroups (strata), then random samples are
taken from each subgroup.
• Sample Size: Proportional allocation to each stratum.
• Considerations: Ensures representation from each subgroup.
• Example: Selecting 10 students from each grade level (e.g., 10 from Grade 9, 10
from Grade 10, etc.) in a school population.
• Where population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be
organized into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent
sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected.
• Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being selected.
• Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures proportionate representation in
the sample.
• Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can be ensured by
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stratification & varying sampling fraction between strata as required.
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING……
Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent
population, different sampling approaches can be applied to
different strata.

Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.

First, sampling frame of entire population has to be prepared
separately for each stratum
Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables
may be related to some, but not to others, further complicating
the design, and potentially reducing the utility of the strata.
Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a large number of
strata, or those with a specified minimum sample size per group),
stratified sampling can potentially require a larger sample than
would other methods
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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Draw a sample from each

stratum

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 POSTSTRATIFICATION
• Stratification is sometimes introduced after the sampling
phase in a process called "poststratification“.
• This approach is typically implemented due to a lack of prior
knowledge of an appropriate stratifying variable or when the
experimenter lacks the necessary information to create a
stratifying variable during the sampling phase.
• Although the method is susceptible to the pitfalls of post hoc
approaches, it can provide several benefits in the right
situation.
• Implementation usually follows a simple random sample. In
addition to allowing for stratification on an ancillary
variable, poststratification can be used to implement
weighting, which can improve the precision of a sample's
estimates.
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 OVERSAMPLING

• Choice-based sampling is one of the stratified

sampling strategies. In this, data are stratified on the
target and a sample is taken from each strata so that
the rare target class will be more represented in the
sample.
• The model is then built on this biased sample.
• The effects of the input variables on the target are
often estimated with more precision with the choice-
based sample even when a smaller overall sample
size is taken, compared to a random sample.
• The results usually must be adjusted to correct for
the oversampling.

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 CLUSTER SAMPLING
• Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling'
Definition: Population divided into clusters, then random clusters are
selected, and all individuals within those clusters are sampled.
Sample Size: Number of clusters and individuals within clusters.
Considerations: Useful when population is widely dispersed.
Example: Sampling several classrooms within a school, then
surveying all students within those classrooms.
• First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
• Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is
selected.
• Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually
based on geographical contiguity.
• Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
• A sample of such clusters is then selected.
• All units from the selected clusters are studied.
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 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
Advantages :
Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling frame.
This can reduce travel and other administrative costs.
Disadvantages: sampling error is higher for a simple
random sample of same size.
Often used to evaluate vaccination coverage in EPI

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 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
•Identification of clusters
– List all cities, towns, villages & wards of cities with their population falling in target area
under study.
– Calculate cumulative population & divide by 30, this gives sampling interval.
– Select a random no. less than or equal to sampling interval having same no. of digits. This
forms 1st cluster.
– Random no.+ sampling interval = population of 2 nd cluster.
– Second cluster + sampling interval = 4th cluster.
– Last or 30th cluster = 29th cluster + sampling interval

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 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….

Two types of cluster sampling methods.

One-stage sampling. All of the elements within
selected clusters are included in the sample.
Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements within
selected clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in
the sample.

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 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….

• Freq cf cluster • XVI 3500 52500 17

• I 2000 2000 1 • XVII 4000 56500 18,19
• II 3000 5000 2 • XVIII 4500 61000 20
• III 1500 6500 • XIX 4000 65000 21,22
• IV 4000 10500 3 • XX 4000 69000 23
• V 5000 15500 4, 5 • XXI 2000 71000 24
• VI 2500 18000 6 • XXII 2000 73000
• VII 2000 20000 7 • XXIII 3000 76000 25
• VIII 3000 23000 8 • XXIV 3000 79000 26
• IX 3500 26500 9 • XXV 5000 84000 27,28
• X 4500 31000 10 • XXVI 2000 86000 29
• XI 4000 35000 11, 12 • XXVII 1000 87000
• XII 4000 39000 13 • XXVIII 1000 88000
• XIII 3500 44000 14,15 • XXIX 1000 89000 30
• XIV 2000 46000 • XXX 1000 90000
• XV 3000 49000 16 • 90000/30 = 3000 sampling interval
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Difference Between Strata and Clusters

Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping

subsets of the population, they differ in several ways.
All strata are represented in the sample; but only a
subset of clusters are in the sample.
With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur
when elements within strata are internally
homogeneous. However, with cluster sampling, the best
results occur when elements within clusters are
internally heterogeneous

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 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING

Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are
embedded one in the other.
First stage, random number of districts chosen in all
states.
Followed by random number of talukas, villages.
Then third stage units will be houses.
All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are surveyed.

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 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING……..

This technique, is essentially the process of taking random

samples of preceding random samples.
Not as effective as true random sampling, but probably solves
more of the problems inherent to random sampling.
An effective strategy because it banks on multiple
randomizations. As such, extremely useful.
Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete list of all
members of the population not exists and is inappropriate.
Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in all selected
clusters, multistage sampling avoids the large, and perhaps
unnecessary, costs associated with traditional cluster sampling.

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MULTI PHASE SAMPLING

Part of the information collected from whole sample & part from subsample.

In Tb survey MT in all cases – Phase I

X –Ray chest in MT +ve cases – Phase II
Sputum examination in X – Ray +ve cases - Phase III

Survey by such procedure is less costly, less laborious & more purposeful

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 MATCHED RANDOM SAMPLING
A method of assigning participants to groups in which pairs of
participants are first matched on some characteristic and then
individually assigned randomly to groups.
The Procedure for Matched random sampling can be briefed with the
following contexts,
Two samples in which the members are clearly paired, or are matched
explicitly by the researcher. For example, IQ measurements or pairs of
identical twins.
Those samples in which the same attribute, or variable, is measured
twice on each subject, under different circumstances. Commonly
called repeated measures.
Examples include the times of a group of athletes for 1500m before
and after a week of special training; the milk yields of cows before and
after being fed a particular diet.

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 QUOTA SAMPLING
Definition:Population divided into quotas based on certain
characteristics, then non-random samples are collected.
Sample Size:Determined by quota requirements.
Considerations:May not be representative of the population.
Example:Interviewing 20 males and 20 females from a population to
ensure equal representation.
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups,
just as in stratified sampling.
Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment
based on a specified proportion.
For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300
males between the age of 45 and 60.
It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability
sampling.
In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look
most helpful. The problem is that these samples may be biased because
not everyone gets a chance of selection. This random element is its
greatest weakness and quota versus probability has been a matter of
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controversy for many years
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

Definition: Selecting participants who are readily available and

willing to participate.
Sample Size: Depends on accessibility.
Considerations: High risk of bias; quick and inexpensive.
Example: Surveying shoppers in a mall during weekdays.
Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental
or haphazard sampling.
A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That
is, readily available and convenient.
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or
haphazard sampling.
A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from
that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, readily available and
convenient.
The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations
about the total population from this sample because it would not be representative
enough.
For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a shopping center
early in the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview would
be limited to those given there at that given time, which would not represent the
views of other members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be
conducted at different times of day and several times per week.
This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where
existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample.

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CONVENIENCE SAMPLING…….

Use results that are easy to get

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 Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling
- Definition: Researchers choose participants based on specific
characteristics relevant to the study.
Sample Size: Depends on study objectives and available participants.
Considerations: Risk of bias; useful for specialized studies.
Example: Selecting expert witnesses for a court case based on their
expertise in a particular field.
The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when there is a limited
number of people that have expertise in the area being researched

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 PANEL SAMPLING

Method of first selecting a group of participants through a random sampling

method and then asking that group for the same information again several times
over a period of time.
Therefore, each participant is given same survey or interview at two or more time
points; each period of data collection called a "wave".
This sampling methodology often chosen for large scale or nation-wide studies
in order to gauge changes in the population with regard to any number of
variables from chronic illness to job stress to weekly food expenditures.
Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about within-person
health changes due to age or help explain changes in continuous dependent
variables such as spousal interaction.
There have been several proposed methods of analyzing panel sample data,
including growth curves.

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 Sample Size Considerations:
Qualitative Research: Sample size tends to be smaller as the emphasis
is on depth rather than breadth. Typically, 5-25 participants are
sufficient, though it depends on data saturation.
Quantitative Research: Sample size is determined by statistical
considerations such as effect size, power, and desired level of
confidence. Larger sample sizes are generally needed for more precise
estimates.
Type of Analysis: Certain analyses, such as multivariate regression or
subgroup analysis, may require larger sample sizes to ensure validity
and reliability of results.
Total Population: Ideally, the sample size should be a representative
subset of the total population under study to ensure generalizability of
findings.
Confounding Variables: Consider factors that may confound the
relationship between variables and adjust sample size accordingly to
control for these variables.
What sampling method u recommend?
Determining proportion of undernourished five year olds in a village.
Investigating nutritional status of preschool children.
Selecting maternity records for the study of previous abortions or
duration of postnatal stay.
In estimation of immunization coverage in a province, data on seven
children aged 12-23 months in 30 clusters are used to determine
proportion of fully immunized children in the province.
Give reasons why cluster sampling is used in this survey.

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 It is the researcher’s ethical responsibility to
safeguard the story teller by maintaining
the understood purpose of the research…
 The relationship should be based on trust between
the researcher and participants.
 Inform participants of the purpose of the study.
 Being respectful of the research site, reciprocity,
using ethical interview practices, maintaining
privacy, and cooperating with participants.

 Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general ethical

issues to consider, such as:
 reciprocity
 assessment of risk
 confidentiality,
 informed consent
 and data access and ownership.
 Qualitative researchers must be aware of
the potential for their own emotional
turmoil in processing this information
 During the interview process, participants

may disclose sensitive and potentially

distressing information in the course of the
interview..
 Creswell,J., W. (2012) Educational research:
Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 4th ed.

 Patton,
M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and
Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.