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SAMPLING
METHODS

BY ADEEL NOUMAN

04/23/2025
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Learn the reasons for sampling

Develop an understanding about different

sampling methods

Distinguish between probability & non probability

sampling

Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages

of each sampling methods

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 SAMPLING
A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully
representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)
Why sample?
Resources (time, money) and workload
Gives results with known accuracy that can be
calculated mathematically
The sampling frame is the list from which the
potential respondents are drawn
Registrar’s office
Class rosters
Must assess sampling frame errors
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SAMPLING……
What is your population of interest?
To whom do you want to generalize your
results?
All doctors
School children
Pakistanis
Women aged 15-45 years
Other
Can you sample the entire population?

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SAMPLING…….

3 factors that influence sample representative-

ness
Sampling procedure
Sample size
Participation (response)

When might you sample the entire population?

When your population is very small
When you have extensive resources
When you don’t expect a very high response

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SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
 Important statistical terms
Population:
a set which includes all
measurements of interest
to the researcher
(The collection of all
responses, measurements,

Sample:
A subset of the population

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SAMPLING…….

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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Target Population:
The population to be studied/ to which the
investigator wants to generalize his results
Sampling Unit:
smallest unit from which sample can be
selected
Sampling frame
List of all the sampling units from which sample
is drawn
Sampling scheme
Method of selecting sampling units from
sampling frame
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 Types of Samples

Probability (Random) Samples

 Simple random sample
Systematic random sample
Stratified random sample
Multistage sample
Multiphase sample
Cluster sample
Non-Probability Samples
Convenience sample
Purposive sample
Quota

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 Process
The sampling process comprises several
stages:
Defining the population of concern
Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items
or events possible to measure
Specifying a sampling method for selecting
items or events from the frame
Determining the sample size
Implementing the sampling plan
Sampling and data collecting
Reviewing the sampling process

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Population definition
A population can be defined as including
all people or items with the characteristic
one wishes to understand.
 Because there is very rarely enough time
or money to gather information from
everyone or everything in a population,
the goal becomes finding a representative
sample (or subset) of that population.

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 Population definition…….
Note also that the population from which the
sample is drawn may not be the same as the
population about which we actually want
information. Often there is large but not
complete overlap between these two groups due
to frame issues etc .
Sometimes they may be entirely separate - for
instance, we might study rats in order to get a
better understanding of human health, or we
might study records from people born in 2008 in
order to make predictions about people born in
2009.
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SAMPLING FRAME
 In the most straightforward case, such as the
sentencing of a batch of material from production
(acceptance sampling by lots), it is possible to
identify and measure every single item in the
population and to include any one of them in our
sample. However, in the more general case this
is not possible. There is no way to identify all rats
in the set of all rats. Where voting is not
compulsory, there is no way to identify which
people will actually vote at a forthcoming
election (in advance of the election)
 As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which
has the property that we can identify every
single element and include any in our sample .
 The sampling frame must be representative of
the population
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PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 A probability sampling scheme is one in which

every unit in the population has a chance (greater
than zero) of being selected in the sample, and
this probability can be accurately determined.

 . When every element in the population does have

the same probability of selection, this is known as
an 'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design.
Such designs are also referred to as 'self-
weighting' because all sampled units are given
the same weight.

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PROBABILITY SAMPLING…….

Probability sampling includes:

Simple Random Sampling,
Systematic Sampling,
Stratified Random Sampling,
Cluster Sampling
Multistage Sampling.
Multiphase sampling

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NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Any sampling method where some elements of
population have no chance of selection (these are
sometimes referred to as 'out of
coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the probability of
selection can't be accurately determined. It involves
the selection of elements based on assumptions
regarding the population of interest, which forms the
criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of
elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling not
allows the estimation of sampling errors..

 Example: We visit every household in a given street,

and interview the first person to answer the door. In
any household with more than one occupant, this is a
nonprobability sample, because some people are
more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed
person who spends most of their time at home is
more likely to answer than an employed housemate
who might be at work when the interviewer calls) and
it's not practical to calculate these probabilities.

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NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING…….
• Nonprobability Sampling includes:
Accidental Sampling, Quota Sampling and
Purposive Sampling. In addition,
nonresponse effects may turn any
probability design into a nonprobability
design if the characteristics of nonresponse
are not well understood, since nonresponse
effectively modifies each element's
probability of being sampled.

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SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• Applicable when population is small,
homogeneous & readily available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability. Each element of the frame thus has
an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible
samples. This is done by assigning a number to
each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is
used to determine which units are to be
selected.

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Simple random sampling

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Table of random numbers

684257954125632140
582032154785962024
362333254789120325
985263017424503686

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SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING……..
 Estimates are easy to calculate.
 Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not
all EPS designs are simple random sampling.

 Disadvantages
 If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.
 Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be
present in sample in sufficient numbers for study.

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SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
 Systematic sampling relies on arranging the
target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular
intervals through that ordered list.
 Systematic sampling involves a random start and
then proceeds with the selection of every kth
element from then onwards. In this case,
k=(population size/sample size).
 It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the kth
element in the list.
 A simple example would be to select every 10th
name from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th'
sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of
10'). 04/23/2025
Systematic sampling

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SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method,
because all elements have the same probability of selection (in
the example given, one in ten). It is not 'simple random
sampling' because different subsets of the same size have
different selection probabilities - e.g. the set {4,14,24,...,994}
has a one-in-ten probability of selection, but the set
{4,13,24,34,...} has zero probability of selection.

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SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
 ADVANTAGES:
 Sample easy to select
 Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
 Sample evenly spread over entire reference population
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in
population coincides with that of selection.
 Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one
survey.

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 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Where population embraces a number of
distinct categories, the frame can be organized
into separate "strata." Each stratum is then
sampled as an independent sub-population, out
of which individual elements can be randomly
selected.
Every unit in a stratum has same chance of
being selected.
Using same sampling fraction for all strata
ensures proportionate representation in the
sample.
Adequate representation of minority subgroups
of interest can be ensured by stratification 04/23/2025
&
varying sampling fraction between strata as
STRATIFIED SAMPLING……
Finally, since each stratum is treated as an
independent population, different sampling
approaches can be applied to different strata.

Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.

 First, sampling frame of entire population has
to be prepared separately for each stratum
Second, when examining multiple criteria,
stratifying variables may be related to some,
but not to others, further complicating the
design, and potentially reducing the utility of
the strata.
 Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a
large number of strata, or those with a
specified minimum sample size per group),
stratified sampling can potentially require a
larger sample than would other methods04/23/2025
STRATIFIED SAMPLING…….

Draw a sample from each

stratum

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OVERSAMPLING
Choice-based sampling is one of the
stratified sampling strategies. In this, data
are stratified on the target and a sample is
taken from each strata so that the rare
target class will be more represented in the
sample. The model is then built on this
biased sample. The effects of the input
variables on the target are often estimated
with more precision with the choice-based
sample even when a smaller overall sample
size is taken, compared to a random
sample. The results usually must be
adjusted to correct for the oversampling.
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 CLUSTER SAMPLING
Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage
sampling' .
 First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
 Second stage a sample of respondents within
those areas is selected.
 Population divided into clusters of
homogeneous units, usually based on
geographical contiguity.
Sampling units are groups rather than
individuals.
A sample of such clusters is then selected.
All units from the selected clusters are
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studied.
 Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4

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CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
Advantages :
Cuts down on the cost of preparing a
sampling frame.
This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
Disadvantages: sampling error is higher for
a simple random sample of same size.
Often used to evaluate vaccination
coverage in EPI

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 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
• Identification of clusters
– List all cities, towns, villages & wards of cities with
their population falling in target area under study.
– Calculate cumulative population & divide by 30, this
gives sampling interval.
– Select a random no. less than or equal to sampling
interval having same no. of digits. This forms 1st
cluster.
– Random no.+ sampling interval = population of 2nd
cluster.
– Second cluster + sampling interval = 4th cluster.
– Last or 30th cluster = 29th cluster + sampling
interval
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CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
Two types of cluster sampling methods.
One-stage sampling. All of the elements
within selected clusters are included in the
sample.
Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements
within selected clusters are randomly
selected for inclusion in the sample.

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CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
• Freq cf cluster • XVI 3500 52500 17
• I 2000 2000 1 • XVII 4000 56500 18,19
• XVIII 4500 61000 20
• II 3000 5000 2 • XIX 4000 65000 21,22
• III 1500 6500 • XX 4000 69000 23
• IV 4000 10500 3 • XXI 2000 71000 24
• XXII 2000 73000
• V 5000 15500 4, 5 • XXIII 3000 76000 25
• VI 2500 18000 6 • XXIV 3000 79000 26
• VII 2000 20000 7 • XXV 5000 84000 27,28
• VIII 3000 23000 8 • XXVI 2000 86000 29
• XXVII 1000 87000
• IX 3500 26500 9 • XXVIII 1000 88000
• X 4500 31000 10 • XXIX 1000 89000 30
• XI 4000 35000 11, 12 • XXX 1000 90000
• 90000/30 = 3000 sampling interval
• XII 4000 39000 13
• XIII 3500 44000 14,15
• XIV 2000 46000
• XV 3000 49000 16

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Difference Between Strata and
Clusters

Although strata
and clusters are both non-overlapping subs
ets of the population, they differ in several
ways.
All strata are represented in the sample; bu
t only a subset of clusters are in the sample
.
With stratified sampling, the best survey re
sults occur when elements within strata are
internally homogeneous
. However, with cluster sampling, the best
results occur when elements within clusters
are internally heterogeneous

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 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING

 Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more

levels of units are embedded one in the other.

 First stage, random number of districts chosen in all

states.

 Followed by random number of talukas, villages.

 Then third stage units will be houses.

 All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last

step are surveyed.

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MULTISTAGE SAMPLING……..
 This technique, is essentially the process of taking
random samples of preceding random samples.
 Not as effective as true random sampling, but
probably solves more of the problems inherent to
random sampling.
 An effective strategy because it banks on multiple
randomizations. As such, extremely useful.
 Multistage sampling used frequently when a complete
list of all members of the population not exists and is
inappropriate.
 Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample units in
all selected clusters, multistage sampling avoids the
large, and perhaps unnecessary, costs associated
with traditional cluster sampling.

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MULTI PHASE SAMPLING
 Part of the information collected from whole sample & part
from subsample.

 In Tb survey MT in all cases – Phase I

 X –Ray chest in MT +ve cases – Phase II
 Sputum examination in X – Ray +ve cases - Phase III

 Survey by such procedure is less costly, less laborious &

more purposeful

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 MATCHED RANDOM SAMPLING
A method of assigning participants to groups in
which pairs of participants are first matched on some
characteristic and then individually assigned
randomly to groups.
 The Procedure for Matched random sampling can be
briefed with the following contexts,
 Two samples in which the members are clearly
paired, or are matched explicitly by the researcher.
For example, IQ measurements or pairs of identical
twins.
 Those samples in which the same attribute, or
variable, is measured twice on each subject, under
different circumstances. Commonly called repeated
measures.
 Examples include the times of a group of athletes for
1500m before and after a week of special training;
the milk yields of cows before and after being fed a
particular diet. 04/23/2025
 QUOTA SAMPLING

The population is first segmented into mutually exclu
sive
sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling.
 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from
each segment based on a specified proportion.
 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample
200 females and 300 males between the age of 45
and 60.
 It is this second step which makes the technique one
of non-probability sampling.
 In quota sampling the selection of the sample is
non-random.
 For example interviewers might be tempted to
interview those who look most helpful. The problem
is that these samples may be biased because 04/23/2025
not
everyone gets a chance of selection. This random
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or
accidental or haphazard sampling.
 A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample
being drawn from that part of the population which is close to
hand. That is, readily available and convenient.
 The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically mak
e generalizations about the total population from this sample
because it would not be representative enough.
 For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a s
hopping center early in the morning on a given day, the peopl
e that he/she could interview would be limited to those given
there at that given time, which would not represent the views
of other members of society in such an area, if the survey was
to be conducted at different times of day and several times p
er week.
 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
 In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar
technique, where existing study subjects are used to recruit
more subjects into the sample.

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Judgmental sampling or
Purposive sampling
- The researcher chooses the sample based
on who they think would be appropriate for
the study. This is used primarily when there
is a limited number of people that have
expertise in the area being researched

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