PAD 314: CONFLICT

MANAGEMENT/
GST 202: PEACE AND
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
By ATTAH, Alexander Enebi
Outline:
1. Meaning, Nature and Causes of Conflict
2. Types/Categories of Conflict
3. Benefits and Effects of Conflict
4. Theories of Conflict
5. Basic concepts in Peace Studies and conflict Resolution
6. Peace-Keeping
7. ADR and Conflict Resolution
8. Role of International Organizations in Conflict Resolution: ECOWAS,
AU, UN etc
The word “conflict” comes from the Latin word
conflictus,which means collision or clash.
•Defining conflict also depends on the nature of
conflict as something that takes place in society.
Conflict is commonly understood as:
• a form of opposition between parties;
• an absence of agreement between parties;
• a way to solve social contradictions;
• a natural process in human social interaction.
• Conflict can be defined as a clash between
individuals arising out of a difference in thought
process, attitudes, understanding, interests,
requirements and even sometimes perceptions.
• Johan Galtung(1969)- Conflict is a dynamic process in
which structure, attitudes and behaviours are constantly
changing

and influencing one another.

What is Conflict?
Conflict is an existing state of disagreement or
hostility between two or more people (Nicholson,
1992). By this, it means two or more parties do
not have an accord and are as such on two
different parallels on the same issue i.e
incompatible goals.
Definition Cont’
In politics, conflict is more explicitly defined.
Conflict is said to exist when two or more groups
engage in a struggle over values and claims to
status, power and resources in which the aims of
the opponents are to neutralize, injure or
eliminate the rivals (Jeong, 2000)
Definition Cont’
Conflict also connotes different perceptions,
which may not necessarily result in hostility. This
way, conflict simply means ‘a different perception’
or view to an issue or situation (Barash and
Webel, 2002).
Definition Cont’
Conflict may also connote hostility or physical
confrontation (Jeong, 2000). When goal
incompatibility or perception/value differences
reach a buildup, a manifestation of actual hostility
or clashes is possible.
• Wall(1985)- Conflict is a process in which two or
more parties attempt to frustrate the
attainment of the other’s goals. The factors
underlying conflict are threefold:
interdependence, differences in goals, and
differences in perceptions.
• According to Coser (1956), Conflict is a struggle
between opponents over values and claims to
scarce status, power and resources.
Synonyms of conflict.
• These include contrast, disharmony, discord,
struggle, contest, strife, antagonism, controversy,
clash, rivalry, contest, contention, brawl, fisticuff,
fight, battle, feud, combat and war. In politics, it
is not too dissimilar; however, conflict technically
means an existing state of disconnect between
two or more parties on a prevailing issue.
Peace and Types of Peace.
It could literarily mean the absence of conflict and
violence in a group or community.
There are two types of peace:
1. Positive: Positive peace transcends absence of
violence. It’s a state where both parties
involved are settled and transformation is in a
constructive way.
Peace cont’
2. Negative Peace: One side is not satisfied with
the outcome of the peace process. It is not
constructive and could have more damaging
outcome/effect in the future. It is also referred to
as “PEACE OF THE GRAVEYARD”
Categorization of Conflict
1. Violent: Conflicts enter a violent phase when parties go beyond
seeking to attain their goals peacefully, and try to dominate damage or
destroy the opposing parties’ ability to pursue their own interests.
Violence as a response is produced when certain innate needs or
demands are deeply frustrated
Categorization Cont’
2. Non-violent: Absence of violence does not automatically mean
absence of conflict. Conflicting interests can be pursued without
violence or coercion. When the conflict already exists this means only
an absence of violent methods employed by parties in their struggle to
resolve their incompatible differences over issues that are important or
relevant to them. Parties do not use force against each other.
SYMMETRIC AND ASYMMETRIC
RELATIONSHIPS IN CONFLICT
1. Symmetric: Equal ability and strength. Matches
each other
2. Asymmetric: unequal ability and strength. Does
not match each other
CAUSES OF CONFLICT:
1. Imbalance in relationships and injustice
2. Perception
3. Goals
4. Inequality in social status
5. Poverty
6. Interest
Types of Conflict
Conflict can be classified by the forms and structure.
Some different types of conflicts are described below.
1. Individual Conflict: Individual conflict occurs in two
ways. One is within individual; other is in between two
or more individuals. An intra-psychic conflict is the
conflict which an individual experiences within the self.
It arises from our drives, instincts and values pulling
against one another
Psychological indicators of
conflict
• Different societies and individuals create
conflicts for different reasons, including pride,
prestige, revenge and quest for resources.
Types of conflict

2. Class Conflict: The exploitations of one group

by another is the main source of class conflicts.
This form of conflict grows out of one class
holding itself superior and trying to dominate
another for its own interests. These interests may
be social prestige, religious objectives, or political
power or economic advantages
Types of Conflict:
3. Economic conflict: Economic conflict is the
biggest problem in our society and the world.
People want good life and when this is not
achievable, conflict becomes inevitable. Karl
Marx’s economic orientation also explains this
cause.
Types of Conflict:
• 4. Environmental Conflict: Modern technology brings forward
many advantages in human beings. It has also badly affected
our environment. 3G, 4G, 5G controversy and conflict
generated.
• Environmental degradation as a result of large amount of toxic
by-products, which pollute the air, water and soil,
automobiles spew out vast quantities of additional air
pollutants, as do power generators and widespread, large
scale burning forests and grassland, noise from religious
centers all around and resultant consequences.
Types of Conflict:
5. Social Conflict: Social conflict is a relationship between two
or more parties who believe they have conflicting goals.
The relation between the parties in social conflict are found in:
a) inequality in political power or in property ownership
b) incompatible religions or ideological convictions
c) Some scholars argued that population density; homicides,
suicides, alcoholism and urbanization are ever increasing
the social conflict.
Types of Conflict:
6. Religious Conflict: Religious conflict is more
violent and more dangerous than any other
conflict. Some fundamentalists believed that their
religion is superior to other religions. This is the
main issue behind religious conflicts.
Types of Conflict:
• Fundamentalism is not confined to one religious
tradition. It is visible in different parts of the
world.
i. Roman Catholic theologians have adapted the
theory of justwar as liberation theology, arguing
that the church supports a justwar which could in
principle also endorse just revolution
Types of Conflict:
ii. Some Muslim militants (Boko Haram and Al
Shabab) used the word Jihad. It is based on the
conception of Islam as a universal religion hence
it is always conceived as a battle between
Muslims and non-Muslims.
iii. India is a pluralistic society, people believed in
different religions, however, in recent times,
violent conflicts have corrupted the majority
Hindus and minority Muslims
7. International Conflict: At the international level
conflict are of two types. One is in the form of:
i)injustice of the dominant nations over the
dominated
ii) conflict in the form of war between countries
Other causes of International
conflict:
i) Economic exploitation
ii) racism/prejudice/discrimination/antagonism on
the grounds of colour
iii) Ideology
iv) disparity among nations in the matter of natural
resources and others are the main forms of injustice
and exploitations found in the international society
NATURE/PHASES OF CONFLICT:
1 No conflict
2 Latent conflict
3 Open conflict
4 Surface conflict
A tree and conflict?
Nature and Phases Cont’
• No conflict: a peaceful group or society, enduring, lively and
dynamic.
• Latent Conflict: conflict not open, below the surface and may need
to be brought out before it can effectively be addressed
• Open conflict: it is both deep- rooted and very visible and may
require actions that address both the root cause and the visible
effects
• Surface conflict: has shallow or no roots and may be only a
misunderstanding of goals that can be addressed by means of
improved communication.
Other Characteristics of Conflict
• Conflict is a universal process found in every society.
• It is basically an individual process. Its aim is not directly
connected with the achievement of the goal or an
objective but is rather directed to dominate others or to
eliminate the opponent.
• Conflict is of short duration, temporary and intermittent
in character. But, once begun, the conflict process is hard
to stop. It tends to grow more and more bitter as it
proceeds. Being temporary, it gives way to some form of
accommodation.
Other Characteristics Cont’
• Conflict is a process loaded with impulsiveness of
human emotions and violent passions. It gains force
and then bursts open. Unlike fighting of animals,
generally in human groups, the spontaneous fighting is
inhibited. It is often avoided through the process of
accommodation and assimilation.
• It may be latent or overt. In the latent form, it may
exist in the form of tension, dissatisfaction,
contravention and rivalry. It becomes overt when an
issue is declared and a hostile action is taken.
THEORIES OF CONFLICT

1 Community relations theory: assumes that conflict is caused by

ongoing polarization, mistrust and hostility between different groups
within a community.
2. Principled negotiation theory: is of the perspective that conflict is
caused by incompatible positions and a zero-sum view of conflict being
adopted by the conflicting parties, that is, “have it all syndrome”
3. Human needs theory: assumes that deep rooted conflict is caused by
unmet or frustrated basic human needs-physical, social and
psychological needs. Security, identity, recognition participation and
autonomy etc
Theories cont’
4. Identity theory: assumes that conflict is caused by a feeling of
threatened identity often rooted in unresolved past loss and suffering.
5. Inter-cultural miscommunication theory: that conflict is caused by
incompatibilities between different cultural communication styles
6. Conflict transformation theory: conflict is caused by real problems
of inequality and injustice expressed by competing social, cultural and
economic frameworks.
Benefits of Conflict

1. making people aware of problems around them

2. promoting necessary change
3. improving solutions
4. raising morale
5. fostering personal development
6. increasing self-awareness
7. enhancing psychological maturity
8. fun
Basic concepts in Peace Studies and conflict
Resolution

• CONFLICT RESOLUTION: It is a variety of methods

aimed at resolving conflict through the
constructive solving of problems distinct from
the management or transformation of conflict.
Conflict resolution is multifaceted in that it refers
to a process, a result and an identified academic
field of study
Concepts cont’
Conflict Transformation: This is restoring
relationship back to the way it was before.
Conflict handling is the hardest way and the last
option.
Concepts cont’
• CONFLICT PREVENTION: It’s putting structures in
place in anticipation of a conflict and seeking to
redress causal grievances to avoid escalation into
violence.
Concepts cont’
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT: This is an interventionist
method towards preventing the escalation and
negative effects especially violent ones of an on- going
conflict. Conflict management is different from conflict
resolution. The aim of resolution is to settle disputes
by getting to the root (cause/s) of the issue while
management is to absolve the issue for a while.
ALTERNATIVE DISPUTE RESOLUTION (ADR) OR NON VIOLENT ACTION

Is a wide range of procedures and approaches other than litigation that

aim to proffer possible resolutions to conflict which will be mutually
accepted by the parties.
• Under ADR, we have:
• 1. Arbitration
• 2. Negotiation and
• 3. Mediation.
ADR Cont
• ARBITRATION: Is a mechanism for resolving
conflict whereby the parties identify their
grievances and demands, they fix a procedural
process and willingly submit to the decisions or
outcomes which are to be binding on them.
Arbitration gives room for the parties involved to
express their grievances with the help of an
arbitrator.
ADR Cont
• NEGOTIATIONS: Communication usually
governed by pre-established procedures
between representatives of parties involved in
conflict or disputes as a technique in the
management and resolution of conflict
ADR Cont
MEDIATION: A voluntary, informal, non-binding
process undertaken with an external party that
fosters the settlement of differences or demands
between directly invested parties. Mediators
often have a general interest in the resolution of a
given conflict or dispute but theoretically, they
are able to operate neutrally and objectively.
ASSIGNMENT
i. Identify five types of conflict 1mark each (5marks)
ii. Explain each of the above very well 3marks each (15 marks)
iii. Give two examples for each of the types of conflict. 2marks each
(10marks)

aeattah@[Link]
UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT
PROGRESSION
UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT PROGRESSION

CONFLICT PROGRESSION

Outcome vary

A sense of crisis emerge

Perception are distorted

Conflict goes outside immediate community

Resources are mobilized= money, power, influences and position

Communication stops= (conflict escalation stage of hot/cold war)

Position hardened

A problem occurs

Problem is sleeping (Latent

CONFLICT ESCALATION
This explains the increasing intensity of any conflict at any
time. Certain factors are responsible for this and these are
those factors that can worsen the flow of a conflict:
• Provocation
• Lack of skills
• Insecurity
• Intolerance
Escalation Cont’
• Perception
• Subjection
• Ignorance
• Mistrust
CONFLICT DE-ESCALATION
This explains the decreasing intensity of any conflict at any time
(i e, factors that can stem or reduce the course of a conflict in a
reverse order downwards.
They include:
• Reversal of all the above, ie the factors that escalates a conflict
• Dialogue/negotiation
• Shifting of positions
• Third party intervention
PEACE-KEEPING
• Peace-keeping is an activity undertaken by the
UN to maintain international peace and security.
It is the active maintenance of truce between
nations and communities especially by an
international military force that is neutral.
Peace-Keeping Cont’
The UN pioneered Peace-keeping in 1948 with
the creation of UN Truce Supervision Organization
(UNTSO) in the Middle East
UN PEACE-KEEPING PRINCIPLES
The UN peace keeping is guided by three (3) basic
principles:
1. Consent of the party (stakeholders).
2. Impartiality.
3. Non-use of force except in self-defence of the
mandate.
AIMS OF PEACE-KEEPING
UN peace keeping provides
i. security,
ii. political and peace building support to help countries
navigate from conflict to peace
iii. helps to maintain peace and
iv. facilitate political process
AIMS CONT’
v. protect civilians
vi. assist in disarmament
[Link] and re-integration of the former
combatants
viii. support the organization of election
ix. protect and promote human right and assist in
restoring rule of law as well as confidence building.
SOME RECENT ACTIONS BY THE
SECURITY COUNCIL
1. In July 2007, the council voted unanimously to deploy a 26,000
strong joint United Nations/African Union mission, in Gabon, in an
attempt to quell the violence in Sudan’s Western region where
fighting between pro-government militia and rebels has killed
more than 250,000 since 2003.
2. The council established two (2) international criminal tribunals to
prosecute crimes against humanity.
3. Following the terrorist attack on the USA on 11th Sept 2001, the
council established its counter anti-terrorism community to help
states increase their capability to fight terrorism.
THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION

• An international organization is an organization

established by a treaty or other instrument governed
by an international law and possessing its own legal
personality.
UNITED NATIONS (UN)
• It is a unique organization of independent countries
that have come together to work for world peace and
social progress. The organization formerly came into
existence on Oct 24, 1945 with 51 countries
considered as founding members. By the end of 2008,
the membership of the UN had grown to 192.
The UN has four (4) Main
purposes.
1. To keep peace throughout the world
2. To develop friendly relation among nations
3. To work together, come together to help people
live better lives, deal with hunger, disease and
illiteracy, and to encourage respect for each other’s’
right and freedom.
4. To be a centre for helping nations achieves its
goal.
METHODS ADOPTED BY UN TO
ACHIEVE THEIR GOALS
1. Pacific settlement or adjustment of dispute .I.e.
seeking peaceful means by the use of mediation,
negotiation, enquires judicial settlement, resort to
regional agencies (AU, ECOWAS) or arrangement for
amicable and peaceful conflict resolution.
2. The use of collective measures .I.e. taking collective
actions which are coercive in nature.
Assignment
1. Enumerate the functions of the organs of the UN.
2. List out the countries that makes up the ECOWAS.
ORGANS OF THE UN
• There are six (6) organs of the UN
1. General Assembly
2. Security Council
3. Economic and Social Council
4. Trusteeship Council
5. International court for Justice
6. The Secretariat
FUNCTIONS OF THE SECURITY
COUNCIL
• To investigate any dispute or situation, that may lead to international
conflict.
• To recommend methods and terms of settlement.
• To recommend actions against any threat or act of aggression.
• To recommend to the General Assembly who should be appointed
Secretary General of the United Nations.
ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN
STATE (ECOWAS)

• It was founded in 1975 for economic integration but expanded her

scope beyond economy to politics, peace and even security.
• The ECOWAS community court of Justice created by a protocol in
1991 allows the rulings on disputes between states over
interpretations of the law which could be in the country.
ROLES OF ECOWAS IN REGIONAL
PEACE
1. Early warning and response network.
2. Engagement.
3. Mediation.
4. ECOWAS stand-by force.
5. ECOWAS conflict prevention framework.
Definition of the Peace
Education:
There is no universally accepted definition for Peace Education.
According to Freire (2006) “Peace education is a mechanism for the
transformation from a culture of violence to a culture of peace through
a process of “conscientisation”
Betty Reardon defines “Peace Education is the attempt to promote the
development of an authentic universal consciousness that will enable
us to function as global citizens and to transforms the present human
condition by changing the social structures and patterns of thought that
have created it”.
Peace Education is an attempt to respond to problems of conflict and
violence of scale ranging from the global and national to the local and
personal. It is about exploring ways of creating more just and
sustainable futures. Laing.R.D.(1978)
Declaration of the 44th session of the international conference on
education held at Geneva in 1994 has listed the following aims of peace
education.
i. To develop sense of universal values in every individual.
ii. To prepare citizens to cope with difficult and uncertain situations and
fitting them for personal autonomy and responsibility.
iii. To educate the individual and develop the ability to recognize and
accept the values which exist in the diversity of individuals.
iv. To strengthen peace, friendship and solidarity between individuals
and people.
v. To develop the ability of non-violent conflict – resolution among the
individuals.
vi. To cultivate the ability to make informed choices, basing their
judgments and actions not only on the analysis of present situations
and the vision of a preferred future among the individuals
vii. To teach the citizens to respect the cultural heritage, protect the
environment and social harmony.
viii. To cultivate citizens in the line of solidarity feeling and feeling of
equity at the national and international levels in the perspectives of a
balanced and long-term development.
CONFLICT HANDLING
TECHNIQUES
Kenneth Thomas and Ralph Kilmann developed a
model of five (5) conflict handling modes or styles
CONFLICT HANDLING
TECHNIQUES
• Avoiding (Uncooperative and unassertive) Neglects own
concerns as well as those of other parties: does not raise
or address conflict issues.
• Accommodating (Cooperative and unassertive) Seeks to
satisfy other person's concerns at the expense of own.
• Competing (Uncooperative and assertive) Opposite of
accommodating. Uses whatever seems appropriate to win.
• Collaborating (Cooperative and assertive) Opposite
of avoiding. Works with other party to find a
solution that satisfies both own and other party's
concerns.
• Compromising (Middle ground) Seeks to find a
middle ground to partially satisfy both parties.
When to Avoid
• When an issue is trivial.
• When there is no chance of getting what you want.
• When the potential damage of confrontation is greater
than the benefits if resolution.
• When you need to gather more information.
• When others can resolve the conflict more effectively.
• When you need to cool down, reduce tension, and regain
perspective or composure.
When to Accommodate
• When you realize you are wrong.
• When the issue is much more important to the
other person than you.
• When you need a future favor (credit).
• When continuing the competition would damage
the cause.
• When subordinates need to develop - to learn from
our mistakes.
When to Compete
• When quick, decisive action is necessary.
• On important issues for which unpopular courses
of action need implementing.
• On issues vital to the group welfare, when you
know you are right.
• When protection is needed against people who
take advantage of noncompetitive behavior.
When to Collaborate
• When both sets of concerns are too important to be
compromised.
• When it is necessary to test your assumptions or better to
understand the viewpoint of the other party.
• When there is a need to combine ideas from people with
different perspectives.
• When commitment can be increased by incorporating the
concerns of everyone into the proposal.
• When there is a history of bad feeling.
When to Compromise
• When goals are important but not worth the effort of
potential disruption from more aggressive players.
• When two opponents with equal power are strongly
committed to mutually exclusive goals.
• When temporary settlements are needed on complex
issues.
• When expedient solutions are needed under time
pressures.
• As back-up when collaboration or competition fail.
Negative Consequences of
Competing
• Eventually being surrounded by "yes people."
• Fear of admitting error, ignorance, or uncertainty.
• Reduced communication.
• Damaged relationships.
• Lack of commitment from others.
• More effort during implementation to sell the
solution
Negative Consequences of
Collaborating
• Too much time spent on insignificant issues.
• Ineffective decisions can be made by people with
limited knowledge of the situation.
• Unfounded assumptions about trust.
Negative Consequences of
Compromising
• No one is completely satisfied.
• Solutions tend to be short-lived.
• Cynical climate: perception by both parties that it is
a "sellout."
• Larger issues, principles, long-term values and the
welfare of the company can be lost by focusing on
trivia or the practicality of implementation.
Negative Consequences of Avoiding
• Decisions made by default.
• Unresolved issues.
• Self-doubt created through lack of esteem.
• Creative input lost.
• Lack of credibility.
• Anger and hostility generated in subsequent
discussions
Negative Consequences of
Accommodating
• Decreased influence, respect, or recognition by too
much deference.
• Laxity in discipline.
• Frustration as own needs are not met.
• Self-esteem undermined.
• Best solution may be lost.
Conflict Control
• Use avoidance to ignore the issue.
• Use accommodating style to allow the other person to
resolve the issue.
• Structure the interaction so that a triggering event is
unlikely to occur.
• Strengthen the barriers that inhibit the expression of
conflict.
• Avoid dealing with the person with whom you are in
conflict.
Steps for Confronting Conflict
• Explain the situation as you see it.
• Describe how it is affecting your performance or
the performance of others.
• Ask for the other viewpoint to be explained, and
listen to the response.
• Agree on the issues independent of personalities.
• Explore and discuss the issues, without reference
to the problem.
Steps for Confronting Conflict
• Agree on what each person will do to resolve the
issues.
• Try to agree on the problem. If there is no
agreement, discuss issues some more.
• Explore possible solutions.
• Agree on what each person will do to solve the
problem
Class Work
• Additional Activities
• Conflict Management - A Business Case:
• In the business case below, you will be able to apply your
knowledge on Conflict Management by advising a client on how to
deal with conflict.
• Case Study:
You are a management consultant specializing in organizational
behavior, and you receive a call from a new client, John. John is the
Chief Innovation Officer at Soft Touch, a video game company.
• John: "I am calling you because I am having a very hard time dealing
with one of my employees, Ojone. Ojone is one of our leading
software engineers, and she just joined the company from Enebita. I
have a lot of respect for Ojone, and I'm actually the one that hired
her. She is the only engineer that has a Ph.D., and her experience at
Enebita is exceptionally precious to the company. She is by far our
most talented engineer. She even had higher grades than myself in
College.
• Consultant: "Sounds great, so why are you fighting?"
• John: "When asking her to create a video game based on the blueprint I
created, instead of building the game, she built a new blueprint instead!
This upset me tremendously because we have deadlines to maintain,
and I don't think an employee should ever challenge her manager. Even
if her blueprint was better (though I'd never tell her that, I have too
much pride), she has no business trying to step on my turf. In response
to this, I decided to build the video game myself at night after work
using my blueprint. I did not even discuss the issue with her since I
knew it would lead to nothing getting done my way. The problem is that
I am so exhausted now, I can keep on doing this going forward."
• Required:
• What Conflict Management style is John currently using? Explain.
• What Conflict Management do you recommend John deploys?
Explain why.
• Solution.
1. The student should identify this Conflict Management style
as Competing with some degree of Avoidance as well.
2. The student should form an answer that considers Ojone's superior
expertise and is more cooperative, such as
the Collaborative, Compromising, or Accommodating style.