EARTH SCIENCE

Tarbuck Lutgens
Felicerta Pinar
The World Ocean
Mount Everest
Dead Sea
Mariana’s Trench
Rotation
Revolution
Milankovitch Cycle
Precession and Wobbling
Translation
 Shape of the Earth

Proponent/Discoverer shape
Greeks Flat
Philolaus, Round/
Aristarchus spherical
Magellan spherical
Newton Oblate spheroid
Space explorations Pear-shaped
 Spheres of the Earth

To from atmo hydro biosphere geosphere anthrosphere

Atmosphere - H 2O O2 H2S, particles SO2, CO2

Mineral
Hydrosphere H 2O - {CH2O} Water pollutants
solutes
O2 , Mineral
Biospehere H 2O - Fertilizers
CO2 nutrients
Organic Hazardous
Geosphere H 2O H 2O -
matter wastes

anthrosphere N2 ,O2 H2O food minerals -

 Studies about the Earth
Geology Earth/geosphere
Oceanography Hydrosphere
Meteorology Weather
Astronomy Outer space
Environmental Biosphere and
science social issues
Petrology Rocks
Mineralogy Minerals
Volcanology Volcanoes/Earth’s interior
4.1 Energy and Mineral Resources

Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

 Renewable resources can be
replenished over fairly short spans of
time, such as months, years, or
decades.
 Nonrenewable resources take millions
of years to form and accumulate.
4.1 Energy and Mineral Resources

Fossil Fuels
 Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons that may be
used as fuel, including coal, oil, and natural
gas.
Anticlines Are Common Oil Traps
4.2 Alternate Energy Sources

Solar Energy
 Solar energy has two advantages:
1. Solar energy’s “fuel” is free.

2. Solar energy is non-polluting.

4.2 Alternate Energy Sources

Nuclear Energy
 In nuclear fission, the nuclei of heavy
atoms such as uranium-235 are
bombarded with neutrons.
 The uranium nuclei split into smaller nuclei
and emit neutrons and heat energy.
Diablo Canyon Nuclear Plant
4.2 Alternate Energy Sources

Wind Energy
 In the next 50 to 60 years, wind power
could meet between 5 to 10 percent of
the country’s demand for electricity.
Wind Turbines
4.2 Alternate Energy Sources

Hydroelectric Power
 Hydroelectric power is the power
generated by falling water.
 The water held in a reservoir behind a
dam is a form of stored energy that can
be released through the dam to produce
electric power.
 The strong water flow that results drives
turbines and electric generators.
Glen Canyon Dam
4.2 Alternate Energy Sources

Geothermal Energy
 Geothermal energy is harnessed by
tapping natural underground reservoirs
of steam and hot water.

 Hot water is used directly for heating and

to turn turbines that generate electric
power.
The Geysers Is the World’s Largest
Electrical Geothermal Facility
4.2 Alternate Energy Sources

Tidal Power
 Tidal power is harnessed by constructing
a dam across the mouth
of a bay or an estuary in coastal areas.
 The strong in-and-out flow of tidal water
drives turbines and electric generators.
Tidal Dams
Discovering Earth’s History

A Brief History of Geology

 Uniformitarianism means that the forces
and processes that we observe today have
been at work for a very long time.
Discovering Earth’s History

Relative Dating—Key Principles

 Relative dating tells us the sequence in
which events occurred, not how long ago
they occurred.
 Law of Superposition
• The law of superposition states that in an undeformed sequence
of sedimentary rocks, each bed is older than the one above it and
younger than the one below it.

 Principle of Original Horizontality

• The principle of original horizontality means that layers of
sediment are generally deposited in a horizontal position.
Ordering the Grand Canyon’s History
12.1 Discovering Earth’s History

Relative Dating—Key Principles

 Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
• The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that when a
fault cuts through rock layers, or when magma intrudes other
rocks and crystallizes, we can assume that the fault or intrusion is
younger than the rocks affected.

 Inclusions
• Inclusions are rocks contained within other rocks.
• Rocks containing inclusions are younger than the inclusions they
contain.
Applying Cross-Cutting Relationships
Rock Records and Relative Dating
Fossils
Radioactive Isotopes Frequently
Used in Radiometric Dating
Earth’s Layered Structure
Earth’s Layered Structure
Earth’s Interior Showing
P and S Wave Paths
Focus, Epicenter, and Fault
Elastic Rebound Hypothesis
Seismograph
Seismogram
Seismic Waves
 Measuring Earthquakes

Mercalli – intensity

Richter – magnitude

Moment Magnitude – energy released

Movement of a Tsunami
Breakup of Pangaea
Matching Mountain Ranges
Glacier Evidence
 Three Types of
Plate Boundaries
Mantle Convection Models
Transform Fault Boundary
Anatomy of a “Typical” Volcano
Profiles of Volcanic Landforms
Activity of Volcanoes
Folding
Faulting
 Minerals

Definition of a Mineral
1. Naturally occurring
2. Solid substance
3. Orderly crystalline structure
4. Definite chemical composition
5. Generally considered inorganic
 Minerals

How Minerals Form

1. Crystallization from magma
2. Precipitation
3. Pressure and temperature
4. Hydrothermal solutions
Pyrite (Fool’s Gold) Displays
Metallic Luster.
Quartz Often Exhibits
Good Crystal Form.
Mohs Scale of Hardness
Mica Has Cleavage in One Direction
Conchoidal Fracture
3.1 The Rock Cycle

Rocks
 Rocks are any solid mass of mineral or
mineral-like matter occurring naturally
as part of our planet.
 Types of Rocks
1. Igneous rock is formed by the crystallization of molten
magma.
3.1 The Rock Cycle

Rocks
 Types of Rocks
2. Sedimentary rock is formed from the weathered products of
preexisting rocks that have been transported, deposited,
compacted, and cemented.

3. Metamorphic rock is formed by the alteration of pre-existing

rock deep within Earth (but still in the solid state) by heat,
pressure, and/or chemically active fluids.
3.1 The Rock Cycle

The Rock Cycle

 Shows the interrelationships among the three
rock types (igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic)
 Magma is molten material that forms deep
beneath the Earth’s surface.
 Lava is magma that reaches the surface.
 Weathering is a process in which rocks are
broken down by water, air, and living things.
 Sediment is weathered pieces of Earth
elements.
The Rock Cycle
Frost Wedging
Unloading and Exfoliation
of Igneous Rocks
 Weathering and
Biological Activity
Composition by Volume of
Good-Quality Soil
5.2 Soil

Characteristics of Soil
 Soil Texture
• Texture refers to the proportions of different particle sizes.

- Sand (large size)

- Silt
- Clay (small size)

• Loam (a mixture of all three sizes) is best suited for plant life.
Soil Profile
A Soil Profile Showing
Different Horizons
The Water Cycle
Sonar Methods
Satellite Methods
Ocean Floor
Salts in Seawater
Natural Processes Affecting Salinity
The Coriolis Effect
Ocean Zones
Plankton
Nekton
Benthos
Features Associated with
Subsurface Water
Cone of Depression
Volume of Clean, Dry Air
Atmospheric Pressure vs. Altitude
Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere
Earth’s Major Climate Zones
Energy Transfer as Heat
Primary Pollutants
Greenhouse Effect & Global Warming
Ozone Hole
Seasons
Earth–Moon–Sun Positions
and the Tides
Planet Revolution
The Solar System Model Evolves
Gravity’s Influence on Orbits
Sidereal Day
The Ecliptic
Phases of the Moon
Lunar Motions
Solar Eclipse
Lunar Eclipse
 The Moon’s Surface

Mare Imbrium
(Sea of Rains)

Kepler Mare Tranquillitatus

Crater (Sea of Tranquility)

Copernicus
Crater
Geocentric and Heliocentric Models
Solar System
23.1 The Solar System

The Planets: An Overview

 The terrestrial planets are planets that are
small and rocky—Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars.
 The Jovian planets are the huge gas giants
—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

 Pluto does not fit into either the Jovian or the

terrestrial category.
23.2 The Terrestrial Planets

Mercury: The Innermost Planet

 Mercury is the innermost and second
smallest planet; it is hardly larger than
Earth’s moon.
 Surface Features
• Mercury has cratered highlands, much like the moon, and vast
smooth terrains that resemble maria.

 Surface Temperatures
• Mercury has the greatest temperature extremes of any planet.
23.2 The Terrestrial Planets
Venus: The Veiled Planet
 Surface Temperatures
• The surface temperature of Venus reaches 475oC, and its
atmosphere is 97 percent carbon dioxide.
23.2 The Terrestrial Planets

Venus: The Veiled Planet

 Venus is similar to Earth in size, density,
mass, and location in the solar system.
Thus, it has been referred to as “Earth’s
twin.”
 Surface Features
• Venus is covered in thick clouds that visible light cannot penetrate.

• About 80 percent of Venus’s surface consists of plains covered by

volcanic flow.
23.2 The Terrestrial Planets

Mars: The Red Planet

 The Martian Atmosphere
• The Martian atmosphere has only 1 percent of the density of
Earth’s.

• Although the atmosphere of Mars is very thin, extensive dust

storms occur and may cause the color changes observed from
Earth.

 Surface Features
• Most Martian surface features are old by Earth standards. The
highly cratered southern hemisphere is probably 3.5 billion to 4.5
billion years old.
23.3 The Outer Planets

Jupiter: Giant Among Planets

 Jupiter has a mass that is 2 1/2 times greater
than the mass of all the other planets and
moons combined.
 Structure of Jupiter
• Jupiter’s hydrogen-helium atmosphere also contains small
amounts of methane, ammonia, water, and sulfur compounds.
23.3 The Outer Planets

Jupiter: Giant Among Planets

 Jupiter’s Moons
• Jupiter’s satellite system, including the 28 moons discovered so
far, resembles a miniature solar system.

 Jupiter’s Rings
• Jupiter’s ring system was one of the most unexpected discoveries
made by Voyager 1.
Jupiter’s Largest Moons
23.3 The Outer Planets

Saturn: The Elegant Planet

 The most prominent feature of Saturn is its
system of rings.
 Features of Saturn
• Saturn’s atmosphere is very active, with winds roaring at up to
1500 kilometers per hour.

• Large cyclonic “storms” similar to Jupiter’s Great Red Spot,

although smaller, occur in Saturn’s atmosphere.
23.3 The Outer Planets

Uranus: The Sideways Planet

 Instead of being generally perpendicular to
the plane of its orbit like the other planets,
Uranus’s axis of rotation lies nearly parallel
with the plane of its orbit.
23.3 The Outer Planets

Neptune: The Windy Planet

 Winds exceeding 1000 kilometers per hour
encircle Neptune, making it one of the
windiest places in the solar system.
23.3 The Outer Planets

Pluto: Planet X
 Pluto’s orbit is highly eccentric, causing it to
occasionally travel inside the orbit of
Neptune, where it resided from 1979
through February 1999.
23.4 Minor Members of the Solar System

Asteroids: Microplanets
 An asteroid is a small, rocky body whose
diameter can range from a few hundred
kilometers to less than a kilometer.
 Most asteroids lie between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter. They have orbital periods of
three to six years.
Irregular Orbits of Asteroids
23.4 Minor Members of the Solar System

Comets
 Comets are small bodies made of rocky and
metallic pieces held together by frozen
gases. Comets generally revolve about the
sun in elongated orbits.
Comet’s Tail Points Away from the Sun
23.4 Minor Members of the Solar System

Meteoroids
 A meteoroid is a small, solid particle that
travels through space.
 A meteor is the luminous phenomenon
observed when a meteoroid enters Earth’s
atmosphere and burns up, popularly called
a shooting star.
 A meteorite is any portion of a meteoroid
that reaches Earth’s surface.