Jerome T.

Arado Legal Technique & Logic

Types of Fallacy

1. Appeal to Ignorance

Appeal to ignorance happens when one individual utilizes another individual’s lack of information on a
specific subject as proof that his or her own particular argument is right.

Example: “You can’t demonstrate that there aren’t Martians living in caves on the surface of Mars, so it is
sensible for me to accept there are.”

2. Appeal to Authority

This sort of error is also known as “Argumentum Verecundia” (argument from modesty). Instead of
concentrating on the benefits of an argument, the arguer will attempt to append their argument to an
individual of power or authority, in an effort to give trustworthiness to their argument.

Example: “Well, Isaac Newton trusted in Alchemy, do you suppose you know more than Isaac Newton?”

3. Appeal to Popular Opinion

This sort of appeal is when somebody asserts that a thought or conviction is correct, since it is the thing
that the general population accepts.

Example: “Lots of people purchased this collection, so it must be great.”

4. Association Fallacy

Sometimes called “guilt by affiliation,” this happens when somebody connects a particular thought or
issue to something or somebody negative, so as to infer blame on another individual.

Example: “Hitler was a veggie lover, so I don’t trust vegans.”

5. Attacking the Person

Also regarded as “argumentum ad hominem” (argument against the man), this is a common fallacy used
during debates, where an individual substitutes a rebuttal with a personal insult.

Example: “Don’t listen to Eddie’s contentions on teaching, he’s foolish.”

6. Begging the Question

The conclusion of a contention is accepted as a statement of the inquiry itself.

Example: “If the neighbor didn’t take my daily paper, who did?” (This accepts that the daily paper was
really stolen).
 7. Circular Argument

This fallacy is also known as “circulus in probando.” This error is committed when an argument takes its
evidence from an element inside the argument itself, instead of from an outside source.

Example: “I accept that Frosted Flakes are incredible, since it says so on the box.”

8. Relationship Implies Causation

Also called “cum hoc ergo propter hoc,” this fallacy is a deception in which the individual making the
contention joins two occasions that happen consecutively, and accepts that one created or caused the
other.

Example: “I saw a jaybird, and ten minutes later I crashed my car. Jaybirds are really bad luck.”

9. False Dilemma/Dichotomy

Sometimes called “bifurcation,” this sort of error happens when somebody presents their argument in
such a way that there are just two conceivable alternatives left.

Example: “If you don’t vote for this applicant, you must be a Communist.”

10. Illogical Conclusion

This is a fallacy wherein somebody attests a conclusion that does not follow from the suggestions or
facts.

Example: “All Dubliners are from Ireland. Ronan is not a Dubliner, so clearly he is not Irish.”

11. Slippery Slope

This error happens when one contends that an exceptionally minor movement will unavoidably prompt
great and frequently ludicrous conclusions.

Example: “If we permit gay individuals to get married, what’s next? Permitting people to marry their
dogs?”

12. Syllogism Fallacy

This fallacy may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd. Syllogism fallacy is a false
argument, as it implies an incorrect conclusion.

Example: “All crows are black, and the bird in my cage is black. So, the bird in my cage is a crow.”

13. Straw Man

In the straw man fallacy, someone attacks a position the opponent doesn’t really hold. Instead of
contending with the actual argument, he or she instead attacks the equivalent of a lifeless bundle of
straw, an easily defeated effigy, which the opponent never intended upon defending anyway.
Example: “The Senator thinks we can solve all our ecological problems by driving a Prius.”

14. Appeal to Pity

Argumentum ad misericordiam is Latin for “argument to compassion”. Like the ad hominem fallacy
above, it is a fallacy of relevance. Personal attacks, and emotional appeals, aren’t strictly relevant to
whether something is true or false. In this case, the fallacy appeals to the compassion and emotional
sensitivity of others when these factors are not strictly relevant to the argument.

Example: “The government needs to hear our cry because we are scared. We are scared that this
candidate will not respect us or protect us. We are scared about our future. There’s no hope for people
like us with these candidates in office.”

15. Fallacy of Sunk Cost

Sometimes we invest ourselves so thoroughly in a project that we’re reluctant to ever abandon it, even
when it turns out to be fruitless and futile. It’s natural, and usually not a fallacy to want to carry on with
something we find important, not least because of all the resources we’ve put into it. However, this kind
of thinking becomes a fallacy when we start to think that we should continue with a task or project
because of all that we’ve put into it, without considering the future costs we’re likely to incur by doing so.

Example: “I know this relationship isn’t working anymore and that we’re both miserable. No marriage. No
kids. No steady job. But I’ve been with him for 7 years, so I better stay with him.”

16. Tu quoque fallacy

The tu quoque fallacy is an attempt to divert blame, but it really only distracts from the initial problem.
The “tu quoque,” Latin for “you too,” is also called the “appeal to hypocrisy” because it distracts from the
argument by pointing out hypocrisy in the opponent. This tactic doesn’t solve the problem, or prove one’s
point, because even hypocrites can tell the truth.

Example: “But, Dad, I know you smoked when you were my age, so how can you tell me not to do it?”

17. Non Sequitur

Also known as: derailment, “that does not follow”, irrelevant reason, invalid inference, non-support,
argument by scenario questionable premise. When the conclusion does not follow from the premises. In
more informal reasoning, it can be when what is presented as evidence or reason is irrelevant or adds
very little support to the conclusion.

Example: “Buddy Burger has the greatest food in town. Buddy Burger was voted #1 by the local paper.
Therefore, Phil, the owner of Buddy Burger, should run for president of the United States.”