Physiology

Basic Concepts

Cell Membrane
1. ECF is 33% of the total body water.
2. 1 mole of NaCI is58.5gmsof NaCI.
3. Ammonia transport in the kidney is Non-ionic diffusion.
4. Isoelectric potential is given by Nernst equation.
5. RMP of a neuron is approximately -70 mV.
6. 70 percentage of ECF sodium is exchangeable(100% K+ is exchangeable).
7. Phosphate is the most abundant intracellular anion.
8. RMP is mostly due to K+diffusion.
9. Iodide transport in the thyroid cell is an example of Secondary active
transport.
10. Lead is a non essential mineral.
11. Glucose transporter in myocyte is GLUT4.
12. Pseudohyponatremia is seen in dyslipidemia.
13. First change seen with salicylate poisoning is Metabolic acidosis.
14. D2O is used in determination of Total body water.
15. Auto-regulation is not seen in Cutaneous circulation.
16. pH of extracellular fluid is 7.4
17. Auto-regulation maintains the blood flow.
18. Skeletal muscle has the maximum oxygen consumption after liver followed
by brain.
19. Na+ symport transports glucose in GIT and PCT.
20. Basal metabolic rate is dependent on the amount of lean body mass.
21. Ketone bodies produced by Liver.
22. Maximum triglycerides are in Chylomicron.
23. Triple helix structure is seen in Collagen.
24. EDRF simulates the action of nitric oxide.
25. Dynein is the force generating protein.
26. After chloride ions, Bicarbonates is the most abundant anion in blood
plasma.
27. Nitric oxide is released from Endothelial cells.
28. The cell junctions allowing exchange of cytoplasmic molecules between the
2 cells are called as Gap junctions.
29. Second messenger mediates intracellular activities of enzymes and
hormones.
30. Carrier proteins meditates the transport of chemicals across cell membrane
against the gradient.
31. Sodium-potassium-ATPase helps in the maintenance of Cell surface charge,
Cell volume and RMP
32. Albumin acts as a co-transport for Fatty acids
33. Barr body is found in the Interphase phase of the cell cycle.
34. Oral rehydration mixture contains glucose and sodium because both of
them facilitate the transport of each other from the intestinal mucosa to
blood.
35. The endothelial cells produce thrombomodulin, except those found in
Cerebral microcirculation.
36. " Non constitutive exocytosis is the example of "Regulated pathway
37. The poison cyanide inhibits the reaction between Cytochrome oxidase and
molecular oxygen.
38. Cyclic AMP is Intraneural secondary messenger.
39. Number of bonds broken in protein synthesis is Four.
40. Earliest definite sign of death is Absent brain stem reflexes.
41. 7 cal of energy is yielded by one ml of alcohol (per gram) in the body.
42. Various cells respond differentially to a second messenger (such as
increased cAMP) because they have different Enzymatic composition.
43. Adenylate cyclase is a membrane bound enzyme that catalyzes the
formation of cyclic AMP from ATP.
44. Inositol triphosphate increases the release of Ca++ from endoplasmic
reticulum.
45. The most abundant glycoprotein present in basement membrane is
Laminin.
46. Sweating is mediated through Sympathetic Cholinergic.
47. In Brain ischemia the level of creatinine kinase I Increases.
48. Acetyl choline is not therapeutic because as it is rapidly metabolized.
49. The first physiological used response to high environmental temperature is
Vasodilatation.
50. Kidney has the most permeable capillaries due to fenestration.
51. Muscle phosphorylase is activated by Calmodulin.
52. RBC rouleaux formation is due to increased blood viscosity and slow
circulation.
53. Content of Na+ in ringer lactate is 130meq/L.
54. Androgen receptors are coded in Long arm of X chromosome.
55. Extra cellular fluid has the majority of body sodium.
56. Nissl's substance is composed of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
57. K+ is the most diffusible ion in excitable tissue.
58. Fe++ is state of Iron responsible for 02 transport.
59. Troponin & Calmodulin are the calcium ion binding protein.
60. Compound action potential is seen in Mixed nerve.
61. Chronaxie is minimum in Myelinated Nerve.
62. Amplitude of action potential can be increased maximally by increased no.
of open Na+ channel.
63. Increasing lipid solubility of the membrane increases particle diffusion
across the cell membrane.
64. Thin filament are made up of Actin, Troponin and tropomyosin
65. Relaxation protein is tropomyosin.
66. The term Milieu interior was coined by Claude Bernard (Father of
Physiology).
67. In Preload, there is Isotonic contraction with shortening of muscle fibres.
68. Van't Hoff gave the Osmotic principle.
69. ECF is measured by Inulin .
70. Evans blue dye is used to measure the Plasma volume.
71. Facilitated diffusion does not require energy
 Nerve - Muscle Physiology

Membrane Potentials
1. Presynaptic inhibition occurs due to hyperpolarization of presynaptic
membrane.
2. End plate potential follows Depolarization law.
3. Continuous sub-threshold stimulus leading to sustained response and
increase in threshold for action potential is known as Accommodation.
4. Rheobase is an indicator of Magnitude of current.
5. Antidromic conduction is seen in Axon reflex.
6. Synaptic conduction is mostly orthodromic because Chemical mediator is
located only in the presynaptic terminal.
7. Action potential is produced because of Na+ influx.
8. The permeability of Na+ ions increases during depolarization of a nerve
fiber.
9. Mg+is not associated with nerve transmission.
10. Nerve impulse is initiated at axon hillock because it has lower threshold
than the rest of axon.
11. In a motor nerve fiber, lower threshold potential is seen in Axon hillock.
12. Initiation of impulse starts in Axon hillock + initial segment.
13. EPSP is due to Na+influx.
14. Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) Are proportional to the amount of
transmitter released by the presynaptic neuron.
15. A traveling nerve impulse does not depolarize the area immediately behind
it, because it is refractory.
16. Renshaw cell inhibition is an example of bio feedback inhibition.
17. Concentration of Potassium determines the resting membrane
potential(RMP) on nerve.
18. Nerve action potential conduction requires a threshold stimulus to be
activated.
19. Synaptic potentials can be recorded by Microelectrode.
20. Neuronal degeneration is not seen in Neuropraxia.
21. Saltatory conduction in myelinated axons results from the fact that
Voltage-gated sodium channels are concentrated at the nodes of Ranvier.
22. Tetanus toxin and botulinum toxin exert their effects by disrupting the
function of SNARES, inhibiting the docking and binding of synaptic vesicles
to the presynaptic membrane.
23. A high membrane resistance of the postsynaptic neuron would optimize the
effectiveness of two closely spaced axodendritic synapses.
24. The action potential in a nerve is the action potential occurs due to sudden
opening of Na+ channels.
25. An increase in the action potential frequency in a sensory nerve usually
signifies increased intensity of the stimulus.
26. Sensory receptors that adapt rapidly are well suited to sensing the rate at
which an extremity is being moved.
27. Adaptation in a sensory receptor is associated with decline in the amplitude
of the generator potential.

Muscle
1. Muscle's blood supply increases during exercise due to Accumulation of
active metabolites.
2. Ca2+ binding troponin C triggers muscle contraction.
3. The motor unit consists of motor nerve and muscle fibers that it supplies.
4. Intercalated disks are found in Cardiac muscles.
5. Myasthenia gravis is a disorder of Neuromuscular junction.
6. Contraction of covering binding sites on actin is prevented by Troponin.
7. Tropomyosin covers myosin and prevents attachments of actin and myosin.
8. Muscle contraction dependent on calcium.
9. Amongst the muscles, skeletal muscle is the most excitable tissue because
there are two "T tubules per sarcomere and has well developed
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
10. Duchenne Muscular dystrophy is a disease of Sarcolemmal proteins.
11. In severe exercise muscle spasm occurs due to Accumulation of K+.
12. Golgi tendon organ determines Muscle tension.
13. Many signaling pathways involve the generation of inositol triphosphate
(IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). These molecules are derived from PIP2.
 Kidney

Nephron, Blood flow and Glomerular Filtration

1. Juxtaglomerular apparatus is absent in the medulla.
2. Glomerular filtration rate is best estimated by Inulin clearance.
3. Relaxation of mesangial cells of kidney is brought about by cAMP.
4. GFR increases if afferent arteriole dilates or Efferent arteriole constricts.
5. In renal disease albumin is first to appear in urine because it has molecular
weight slightly greater than the molecules normally getting filtered.
6. Mesangium does not form filtration barrier in nephrons.

Transport of various substance

1. The status of fluid in distal convoluted tubule is Always hypotonic.
2. Maximum absorption of HCO3 occurs is PCT.
3. Creatinine is least absorbed in tubules.
4. Even in the presence of vasopressin the greatest fraction(-10%) of filtrated
water is re-absorbed in Proximal tubule.
5. Potassium is either reabsorbed or secreted in DCT.
6. Active potassium secretion occurs at Distal convoluted tubule.
7. Maximum reabsorption of Mg2+ occurs in PCT in thick ascending limb.
8. Na absorption is maximum at PCT.
9. In Proximal segment by active reabsorption of Na+, the major portion of
glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed.
10. The urine/plasma ratio of sodium ion is 0.6
11. The amount of protein normally excreted in urine per day is up to 150mg.
12. TmG for glucose is 375 mg/min
13. Transport maximum (Tm) means Maximum reabsorption & secretion.
14. 60 to 70% of glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in proximal tubule.
15. Potassium is maximally absorbed in Proximal convoluted tubules.
16. Over half of the Potassium that appears in the urine of a patient, who has
ingested some potassium salts, is derived from Secretion by the distal tubule.
Clearance
1. Clearance of a substance which is secreted is greater than GFR .
2. Renal plasma flow is best determined by PAH.
3. PAH (para-aminohippuric acid) clearance is equal to Renal plasma flow.
4. Inulin clearance is equal to 125ml/min.
5. Free water clearance by the kidney is increased by Diabetes insipidus.
6. Inulin clearance provides the most accurate measure of GFR.
7. PAH has the highest renal clearance.

Counter Current Mechanism

1. Urinary concentrating ability of the kidney is increased by ECF volume
contraction.
2. Renal medullar hyperosmolarity is due to increased interstitial Na, K, & urea
.
3. In PCT 60-70% filtrates are reabsorbed.

Acid-Base Balance
1. Anion gap is mainly due to albumin.
2. The enzyme required for the generation of the ammonium ion in the kidney
is Glutaminase.
3. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is used for measuring the acid base
balance.
4. I cells are responsible for acid secretion in kidney.

Endocrine functions of kidney & other applied aspects

1. Ureteric peristalsis is due to pace maker activity of the smooth muscle cells
in the renal pelvis.
2. Sodium is excreted in urine in SIADH.
3. In Hypervolemia, renin secretion is inhibited.
4. Renin is released when there is low sodium.
5. Renovascular hypertension is the renin induced hypertension.
6. In micturition reflex, the first change to occur is relaxation of perineal
muscle.
7. Vasopressin secretion is increased by decreased ECF volume &
Carbamazepine.
8. ADH act at Collecting tubules.
9. Production of aldosterone is stimulated by Renin,
10. The part of Nephron most impermeable to water is Ascending Loop.
11. In Hypervolemia, renin secretion is inhibited.
12. ANP acts at Collecting duct.
13. In collecting duct there is increased excretion of K+.
14. An athlete came to casualty with 4 days of passing red colored urine, the
cause of hematuria is hemoglobin.
15. Monitoring of serum cystatin levels for Renal functions.
16. Increased Efferent arteriolar resistance tends to increase peritubular
capillary fluid reabsorption.
17. In a person with severe central diabetes insipidus (deficient production or
release of AVP), urine osmolality and flow rate is typically about 50
mOsm/kg H2O, 18 L/day.
18. The primary reason that the female phenotype develops in an XY male is
the lack of testosterone action.
19. Renin in synthesized by JG cells.
20. Arginine vasopressin (AVP) is synthesized in the Anterior hypothalamus
21. An increase in central blood volume leads to decreased Na+ reabsorption
by the kidneys.
22. The nephron segment that reabsorbs the largest percentage of filtered
Mg2+ is the thick ascending limb.
23. Intravenous infusion of isotonic saline causes decreased renin release by
the kidneys.
24. Skeletal muscle injury cause hyperkalemia.
25. Aldosterone acts on cortical collecting ducts to increase K+ secretion
26. In response to an increase in GFR, the proximal tubule and the loop of
Henle demonstrate an increase in the rate of Na+ reabsorption. This
phenomenon is called as Glomerulo tubular balance.
27. Intravenous infusion of 2.0 L of isotonic saline (0.9% NaCI) results in
increased plasma atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) concentration.
28. The main driving force for water reabsorption by the proximal tubule
epithelium is active reabsorption of Na+.
 Cardiovascular System

1. HR increases with parasympathetic Denervation.

2. Vagal stimulation causes increase in R-R interval in EC.
3. The maximum conduction rate is at Purkinje fiber.
4. conduction velocity is least at AV node.
5. SA node is the pacemaker of heart because it generates impulses at a faster
rate.
6. The pacemaker potential is due to decrease in K+ permeability.
7. Calcium enters the cardiac cell during plateau phase of the action potential.
8. Endocardium, epicardium, upper most part of septum is order of activation
after stimulation of Purkinje fibers.PR interval indicates AV node
conduction time & Atrial depolarization.
9. QRS complex indicates Ventricular depolarization.
10. Osborne J wave is the ECG hallmark of hypothermia.
11. Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels is most responsible for phase 0 of a cardiac
nodal cell.
12. Atrial repolarization normally occurs during the QRS complex
13. The P wave is normally positive in lead I of the ECG because depolarization
of the atria proceeds from right to left.
14. Excitation of the ventricles proceeds from the subendocardium to
subepicardial.
15. AV nodal cells conduct impulses more slowly than either atrial or
ventricular cells.
16. The R wave in lead I of the ECG reflects a net dipole associated with
ventricular depolarization.
17. During the cardiac cycle, the aortic and mitral valves are never open at the
same time.

Cardiac Cycle & JVP Changes

1. 'C' wave in JVP is due to Bulging of the tricuspid value into the right atrium

2. First heart sound occurs due to closure of AV valve.

3. Second heart sound occurs due to closure of aortic and pulmonary valve.
4. The iso-volumetric relaxation stops when Ventricular pressure falls below
atrial pressure.
5. Opening of AV valve marks the end of isovolumetric relaxation.
6. During the cardiac cycle the opening of the aortic valve takes place at the end
of isovolumetric contraction.

Cardiac Output & Ventricular Functions

1. Myocardial 02 demand is directly proportional to duration of systole.
2. Ejection fraction increases with End Diastolic volume.
3. Standing to sitting change is immediate Increase in Venous Return.
4. When a person changes position from standing to lying down position,
Venous return to heart rises immediately.
5. Cardiac output in liter per minute divided by heart rate gives Mean stroke
volume.
6. The basal cardiac output in adults is 5.5liter.
7. Fick's principle is used for measuring Cardiac output.
8. Starling's principle is that within physiological limits, the force of contraction
is proportional to initial length of cardiac muscle fiber.
9. Oxygen demand of heart increases proportionately with heart rate.

Principles of Hemodynamics
1. Capillaries contain 5% blood.
2. Laminar flow is dependent on critical velocity.
3. Maximum peripheral resistance is at Arterioles.
4. Bernoulli's principle states that Sum of kinetic energy of flow and pressure
energy is constant.
5. Maximum cross sectional area is present in Capillaries.
6. Blood flow through a vessel varies directly with pressure of difference.
7. Cutaneous shunt vessels have help in thermoregulation.

Blood Pressure
1. Mean circulatory pressure is Pressure at any point when the heart is stopped.
2. The blood pressure measured by Sphygmomanometer is Higher than the
 intraarterial pressure.
3. Pulmonary (capillary) wedge pressure corresponds to Left atrial pressure.
4. Mean arterial pressure is equal to Diastolic + l/3rd Pulse pressure.
5. Occlusion of common carotid artery on both sides leads to increases in HR
& BP.
6. Carotid sinus baroreceptor is most sensitive to Mean blood pressure.
7.
Diastolic Pr. In Aorta is maintained by Elastic recoil of aorta
8.
Blood pressure measured using a sphygmomanometer may be falsely high
in obese patients.

Cardiovascular Regulatory Mechanisms

1. Vasomotor centre (VMC) acts along with the cardio vagal centre (CVC) to
maintain blood pressure.
2. Pressure on carotid sinus leads to reflex bradycardia.

Special Circulation & Applied

1. CSF pressure is mainly regulated by rate of CSF absorption.
2. Maximum heart rate with exercise is 200/min.
3. Blood supply during exercise does not decrease in Coronary circulation.
4. Histamine give rise to Lewis Triple Response.
5. The regional arterial resistance of the mesentery and kidney vessels is
reduced by Dopamine.
6. The pressure-volume curve is shifted to the left in Aortic stenosis.
7. Vagal stimulation causes increase in R-R interval in ECG.
8. In peripheral chemoreceptors, activation is important in the cardiovascular

response to hemorrhagic hypotension.

9. Parasympathetic stimulation of the heart accompanied by a withdrawal of
sympathetic tone to most of the blood vessels of the body is characteristic
of Vasovagal syncope.
10. A person stands up. Compared with the recumbent position, 1 minute after
standing, the Volume of blood in leg veins increases.
11. A manual laborer moves in March from Kashmir to Delhi and becomes
acclimatized by working outdoors for a month. Compared with his
responses on the first few days in the Delhi, for the same activity level after
acclimatization one would expect higher Sweating rate.
12. In the presence of a drug that blocks all effects of norepinephrine and
epinephrine on the heart, the autonomic nervous system can lower the
heart rate below its intrinsic rate.
13. At a constant blood flow, an increase in the number of perfused capillaries
improves the exchange between blood and tissue because of greater
surface area for the diffusion of molecules.

Respiration

Mechanics of breathing
1. The intrapleural pressure is negative both during inspiration and expiration
because thoracic cage and lung's opposite recoil.

Surface tension & Surfactant

1. Stability of alveoli maintain by surfactant
2. Surfactant is made up of mainly Phospholipids.
3. Type II Pneumocyte secrete surfactant.
4. Surfactant is present in amniotic fluid at 28 weeks.

Ventilation I Perfusion Pressure

1. Total alveolar ventilation volume is 4.2 liter/mm.
2. Alveolar PaC>2 is maximum at apex of lung.
3. Ventilation-perfusion ratio is maximum at apex of lung due to poor blood
flow

Lung volume & capacities

1. During plethysmography, pressure in lungs increases and in the box
decreases as patient expires with closed glottis.
2. Flow in small airways is laminar because the linear velocity of airflow in the
small airways is extremely low.
3. Vital capacity is TV+IRV+ERV(-4.5L)
4. Total lung capacity is 6 to 7 liters
5. Anatomic dead space is 30 % of tidal volume:
6. FRC is the Volume of air present after normal expiration.
7. Normal functional residual capacity is 2.3L.
8. Lung diffusion capacity is measured with CO.
9. Total lung capacity depend on Lung compliance.

Gas Exchange & Transport

1. Reason for fast CO2 diffusion in blood is the more soluble in plasma
2. Cause of sigmoid shape of 02 curve is the binding of one 02 molecule
increase the affinity of binding of other 02 molecules.
3. High affinity of HbF with 02 due to decrease binding with 2,3 DPG.
4. An increase in Oxygen affinity of hemoglobin will shift the 02 dissociation
curve to the left.
5. 2, 3 diphosphoglycerate alters affinity to hemoglobin.
6. Oxygen affinity decreases in hypoxia.
7. Decreased 02 affinity of Hb in blood with decreased pH Bohr effect.
8. Dissolved oxygen is not dependent on Hb.
9. Carbon dioxide is transported in blood mainly as Bicarbonate.
10. The concentration of oxygen provided by mouth-to-mouth respiration is
16%.

Regulation of Respiration
1. Loading reflex to monitor tidal volume is the Thoracic muscle spindles
2. Pacemaker for the start of rhythmic respiration is Pre - botzinger complex
3. Central chemoreceptors are most sensitive to Increase in C02 Tension
4. "Inflation of lungs induces further inflation" is explained by Heads
paradoxical reflex.
5. The vasodilatation produced by carbon dioxide is maximum in Brain.
6. Peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated maximally by Cyanide.
7. In Asthma there is increased FRC and Increased Residual Vol
Applied Respiratory Physiology
1. Nitrogen narcosis is caused due to Increased solubility of nitrogen in nerve
cell membrane.
2. Due to High position of the larynx an infant can breathe while suckling breast
milk.
3. Cyanosis doesn't occur in Anemia because Certain min. amount of reduced
Hb should be present.
4. At high altitude pulmonary edema is more likely to occur above height of
300m.
5. Earliest change in high altitude is Hyperventilation.
6. An untrained person going to higher altitude for training can have maximum
anabolic effect by: Decrease in workload, increase in duration of exercise.
7. Cyanosis which is not corrected by 100% oxygen therapy is due to shunt.
8. In moderate exercise stimulation of respiration is due to Joint proprioception
receptor.
9. Conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II the best-known metabolic
function of the lung.
10. Hypoxia causes vasoconstriction in Lungs
11. In Cyanide poisoning, there is tissue hypoxia without alteration of oxygen
content of blood.
12. Death due to cyanide poisoning results from Histotoxic hypoxia.
13. 100 feet deep under water, the pressure is 4 atm
14. Partial pressure of oxygen in venous blood is 40 mm Hg.
15. Diaphragm is lowest in sitting posture.
16. Maximum increase in minute volume is seen in exercise
17. In healthy individuals, the cause of an (A-a)O2 gradient is a bronchial
circulation (physiological)shunt.

Central Nervous System

General, Neurons, Neurotransmitters

1. Pain insensitive structure in brain is choroid plexus.
2. Memory cells escape apoptosis because of nerve growth factor.
3. Substance p is released in response to pain in periphery Nerve terminals.
4. Inhibitory neurotransmitter of central nervous system is Gamma-
aminobutyric acid.
5. Sine qua non for cerebral cortex are Pyramidal cells.
6. Exposure to darkness leads to increased melatonin secretion. It is brought ■
about by the increasing the serotonin N-acetyl transferase.
7. Melatonin is a serotonergic.
8. Acetylcholine is a preganglionic sympathetic neurotransmitter.
9. Glutamate is excitatory.
10. Glycine serves both inhibitory and excitatory functions within the CNS.
11. Renshaw cell inhibition is a typical example of Recurrent inhibition.
12. In the postnatal period the greatest growth in the grey matter of the C.N.S. is
of the Dendritic tree.
13. Phagocytosis in the CNS is done by Microglia.
14. The inhibition substance in spinal cord is Glycine.
15. The inhibitory neurotransmitter in central nervous system is Gamma-
aminobutyric acid.
16. Gamma neurons innervate the Intrafusal muscle fibers.
17. The brain neurons may get irreversibly damaged if exposed to significant
hypoxia for 8 minutes.
18. Peptide transmitters would be most affected by a toxin that disrupted
microtubules within neurons.
19. Degeneration of corpus striatum cause chorea.
20. Umami taste is due to glutamate.
21. Otoacoustic emissions are related to outer hair cells.
22. Nociception acts via Orphaning receptors.
23. Acetyl choline is secreted by which cells of retina amacrine cells
24. Transducin protein is seen in vision.
25. Nerve fibres affected mainly by local anaesthetic B.
26. In damage to Preoptic area in hypothalamus Hyperthermia.

Sensory System, Spinal Cord & Tracts

1. Due to a central cord lesion, dissociative sensory loss seen due to
Decussating branches of lateral spinothalamic tract.
2. Function of spinocerebellar tract Coordination & smoothing of movement.
3. In Brown-Sequard's syndrome there is Ipsilateral loss of proprioception.
4. Conscious proprioception is carried by Dorsal column.
5. Fine touch is transmitted via the dorsal lemniscal system.
6. Stereoanesthesia is due to lesion of Nucleus cuneatus.
7. As per Weber Fechner law, sensation is proportional to Logarithm of
stimulus strength.
8. Destruction of sensory area 1 of brain leads to less of which sensations like
Stereognosis & 2 point discrimination.
9. A person with intractable pain over the right leg is benefited by Left
Spinothalamic tract cordectomy.
10. Sensation transmitted by pacinian corpuscles is Vibration.
11. Pacinian corpuscles are rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors.
12. Phantom limb phenomenon can be described by Law of projection.
13. The distance by which two touch stimuli must be separated to be perceived
as two separate stimuli is greatest the back of scapula.
14. Massage and the application of ligaments to painful areas in the body
relieves pain due to Inhibition by large myelinated afferent fibres.
15. If a single spinal nerve is cut, the area of tactile loss is always greater than
the area of loss of painful sensations, because degree of overlap of fibres
carrying tactile sensation is much less.
16. Hot water bag use in intestine colic works by inhibiting Adrenergic receptors.

Motor System & Reflexes

1. Golgi tendon organ determines Muscle tension.
2. Lower motor neuron is involved in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
3. Fasciculation is the twitch of a single motor unit.
4. Skilled voluntary movement is initiated at Cerebral Cortex (motor cortex).
5. Pyramidal fibers are Projection fibres.
6. Lesions of pyramidal tract do not present with Abnormal movements.
7. Lower motor neuron lesions are associated with Flaccid paralysis.
8. Crossed extensor reflex is a Withdrawal reflex.
Basal Ganglia
1. Basal ganglion is related with Planning of voluntary movements.
2. In substantia nigra, the major neurotransmitter is Dopaminergic.
3. In subthalamic nuclei the major neurotransmitter is glutamate.
4. Functions of Basal ganglia include the skilled motor movements.
5. Huntington's disease is due to the loss of Intra striatal GABAergic neurons.

Cerebellum
1. Spinocerebellar ataxia exclusively involve neurons.
2. Cerebellum in motor performance smoothens and coordinates ongoing
movements.
3. Archicerebellum is Flocculus.
4. Mossy fibers which are cerebellar component that would be abnormal in a
degenerative disease that affected spinal sensory neurons.

EEG & Sleep

1. In EEG, delta waves are seen In deep sleep.
2. Sleep spindles and K complexes seen in NREM 2 stage.
3. A person with eyes closed and mind wandering will have the Alpha waves in
EEG.
4. Waves seen in EEG at the Hippocampus.
5. Nightmares are seen in REM sleep.
6. Dreams occurred in both NREM and REM sleep.

Hypothalamus
1. Shivering is not occurring in child exposed to cold climate due to Brown fat.
2. Sleep is primarily regulated by Hypothalamus.
3. Satiety center is located in Ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus; hunger
center is located in lateral nucleus of hypothalamus.
4. Thermoregulatory center is located at Hypothalamus.
5. Primary motor area for shivering is Dorsomedial posterior hypothalamus.
6. Thirst is activated by Extracellular hyperosmolarity.
7. Circadian rhythm is controlled by Suprachiasmatic nucleus.
8. Drinking can be induced by Electrical stimulation of the preoptic nucleus.
9. Osmoreceptor is located at Anterior hypothalamus.
10. Non shivering Thermogenesis is that Fatty acids show uncoupled oxidative
Phosphorylation.
11. In animals with chronic exposure to cold true Vagal inhibition of heart is
reduced.

Higher Functions
1. Remembering things a week old is remote memory.
2. Representation in Cerebral cortex is vertically.
3. Conversion of short term memory into long term memory occurs in
Hippocampus.
4. Papez circuit in limbic system involves Anterior thalamic nuclei.
5. Prosopagnosia is Inability to recognize faces.
6. Emotional effect to a physical response is given by Hippocampus.
7. Arousal response in mediated by Reticulo activating system.
8. Part of brain most sensitive to hypoxia is Hippocampus.

Speech & Aphasia

1. Broca's area is involved in Word formation.
2. Broca's area of speech is located in Inferior border of frontal lobe.
3. Motor aphasia is Verbal expression.

CSF
1. CSF pressure depends primarily upon Rate of absorption
2. CSF plasma glucose ratio is 0.64.
3. Normal pressure of CSF in adult is 6-l2mmHg (50-l80mmH20).
4. CSF production per minute 0.30—0.35 ml/min.
5. Blood brain barrier is deficient at Area postrema.

Autonomic nervous system

1. Autonomic ganglion is mainly Cholinergic.
2. Parasympathetic stimulation will cause Pupillary constriction.
3. Sensory fiber with maximum conduction velocity Alpha fiber.
4. Sympathetic ganglia arises from Thoracolumbar
 Vision & Hearing

Special Senses
1. Bitter taste is mediated by action of G protein.
2. Red Green spectrum of colour is highest visualized due to central cones.
3. The rod receptor potential differs from other sensory receptors in that it
shows Hyperpolarization.
4. During the dark phase of visual cycle, the form of vitamin A combines with
opsin to make Rhodopsin is 11-cis-Retinaldehyde.
5. The parvocellular pathway from lateral geniculate nucleus to visual cortex is
most sensitive for the stimulus of Color contrast.
6. Amacrine cells are seen in Retina.
7. Receptor itself is a dendrite of a nerve is Olfactory
8. In the inner ear, stereocilia are the mechan sensing organelles of hair cells,
which respond to fluid motion.

Endocrinology

General & Mechanism of Hormones Action

1. Adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin act through 7pass
receptor.
2. cAMP is a second messenger of follicle stimulating hormone.
3. Corticosteroid and thyroid receptor is present in the intracellularly.

Pituitary Gland: Growth Hormone & Prolactin

1. HIGH prolactin is associated with Increase estradiol
2. In obstructive azoospermia, FSH & LH Both normal.
3. The secretion of prolactin is controlled by Dopamine
4. LH surge is responsible for menopausal hot flashes.
5. The antidiuretic hormone is released by Posterior pituitary.
6. Transection of pituitary stalk leads to the increase in prolactin.
7. Lactogenesis is caused by prolactinandejection of milk by Oxytocin.
8. Acromegaly occurs due to Acidophilic adenoma.
9. Pituicyte is located in Neurohypophysis.
10. Apart from TSH, TRH also stimulates the release of Prolactin.
11. Posterior pituitary stores and releases Oxytocin and vasopressin
12. Follicle stimulating hormone is produced by Basophilic cells of pituitary.
13. In the neurohypophysis, secretory granules accumulate in nerve endings.
14. Insulin stress test assay estimates Growth hormone.
15. Growth Hormone causes hyperglycemia.

Thyroid Gland
1. Thyroid act by nuclear receptors
2. T3 level gives an indication of Thyroid state.
3. "C" cells are found in thyroid.

Pancreas
1. Somatomedin mediates the deposition of chondroitin sulphate.
2. Epinephrine decreases insulin release.
3. Delta cells or 'D' cells of pancreas Secrete Somatostatin.
4. Human insulin differ from beef insulin by 3 Amino acid.
5. Insulin does not cause Lipolysis.
6. Insulin does not cross placenta.
7. HbAlc level in blood explains the long term status of blood sugar.

Adrenals
1. Vanillylmandelic acid is the principal metabolite in norepinephrine
metabolism excreted in urine.
2. In the adrenal gland, androgens are produced by the cells in the Zona
reticularis.
3. Zona glomerulosa secretes aldosterone.
4. Non-shivering Thermogenesis in adults is due to Noradrenaline.
Calcium And Potassium
1. Ionized calcium is the active form of calcium in the body.
2. The mechanism by which hyperventilation may cause muscle spasm is
decreased calcium.
3. Osteoclast has specific receptor for Calcitonin.
4. Sudden decrease in serum calcium is associated with increased sensitivity of
muscle and nerve.
5. Inositol triphosphate acts to increase the release of Ca 2+ from endoplasmic
reticulum.
6. Parathyroid hormone is responsible for increased production of 1, 25
&Dihydroxycholecalciferol in kidney.
7. Osteomalacia is associated with increase in osteoid maturation time.
8. Main mineral salt of bone in Hydroxyapatite.

Reproduction & Related Hormones

1. Best indicator for ovarian reserve is FSH.
2. Sertoli cells are associated with Spermiogenesis.
3. Leydig cells secrete testosterone.
4. Sequence of sperm movement is straight tubules - rete testis - efferent

tubules.
5. Sertoli cells in the testis have receptors for FSH.
6. Sperms acquire motility in Epididymis.
7. Inhibin hormone is secreted by Sertoli cells.
8. Antibodies against sperms develop after vasectomy.
9. Progesterone causes increase in basal body temperature during ovulation.
10. In postmenopausal women, estrogen is metabolized mostly into Estrone.
11. Elasticity of cervical mucous is seen at time of MID cycle.
12. The correct position of OH groups in estradiol are C3 and C17.
13. Nucleus is the site of estrogen action.
14. Normal or elevated LH/FSH is seen during polycystic ovary disease.
15. Gene coding for androgen receptors is situated in Long arm of X
chromosome.
16. FSH is inhibited by Inhibin
17. After formation, the sperms are stored in Epididymis.

18. Meiosis occurs in human males in Seminiferous Tabules.

19. Length of spermatozoais 50 micron.
20. The enzyme associated with the conversion of androgen to oestrogen in the
growing ovarian follicle is Aromatase.
21. Androsterone is responsible for hirsutism.
22. Blood testis barrier is formed by Sertoli cells.
23. Prostaglandins found in the seminal fluid are the secreting products of
Seminal vesicle.
24. Hormone responsible for initiation of ovulation is LH.
25. Pancreatic P cell are freely permeable to glucose via GLUT2.
26. Insulin stimulated glucose entry is seen in cardiac muscle.
27. Fructose is secreted by seminal vesicle.
28. Hormone acting on adjacent cells is called Paracrine.
29. Premenopausal peripheral conversion of estrogen precursors in the obese
patient results in the formation of Estrone.
30. Insulin secretion is inhibited by Hypokalemia.
31. Epiphyseal closure is due to Androgen.
32. GnRH acts via Phospholipase C.
33. Glucose mediated insulin release is mediated through ATP sensitive K+
channels.

Thyroid Gland
1. Reabsorption Lacunae in thyroid are seen in Colloid, in active follicles.
2. Thyroglobulin synthesis does not take place in colloid.
3. The R.M.P of thyroid cell is approximately 50mv.
4. Iodide uptake into thyroid cell is an example of Secondary active transport
5. The minimum amount in thyroid secretion is that of MIT.
6. Active form of thyroid hormone is T3.
7. An increase in both TSH as well as thyroid hormones can be encountered in
T3, T4 resistance.
Adrenal Glands
1. in the adrenal medulla 90% of cells are of epinephrine secreting type.
2. Most of the total mass of adrenal gland is made up of Zona fasciculate.
3. Secretion of adrenal androgens is controlled mainly by ACTH.
4. Glucocorticoids act as anti-inflammatory / anti-allergic agents because they
Prevent release of histamine/cytokines.
5. ACTH bursts are maximum in Early morning.
6. The primary form of cortisol in the plasma is Bound to corticosteroidbinding
globulin (CBG).
7. The rate-limiting step in the synthesis of cortisol is catalyzed by Cholesterol
side-chain cleavage enzyme.

Pancreas
1. The enzyme that controls entry of glucose into circulation from liver is
Glucose - 6 phosphatase.

Parathyroid Glands
1. Main effect of VIT.D. (1,25 DHCC) isTes intestinal absorption of Ca++.
2. The major site(s) for control of body's phosphorous is Kidney.
3. The major storage form of VIT. D is 25 OHCC.
4. Hyperparathyroidism responsible for osteoporosis.

Reproduction & Related Hormones

1. Estriol production during pregnancy requires Androgens substrates from the
fetus.
2. A major factor in of hypogonadism is reduced secretion of gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH).
3. The major function of follistatin is to bind activin and thus decrease FSH
secretion.
4. A major function of the epididymis is the storage and transport of mature
sperm.
5. The production of mature spermatozoa from spermatogonia takes 70 days.
6. Testosterone is converted to dihydrotestosterone in the prostate.
7. Sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) binds testosterone with a higher
 affinity than estradiol.
8. The production of estradiol by the testes requires Leydig cell, Sertoli cells, LH,
and FSH
9. Estradiol synthesis in the graafian follicle involves Stimulation of aromatase
in the granulosa cell by FSH
10. Granulosa cells do not produce estradiol from cholesterol because they do
not have an active 17a-Hydroxylase.
11. A clinical sign indicating the onset of the menopause is an increase in plasma
FSH levels.
12. Increased progesterone during the postovulatory period is associated with
an increase in basal body temperature by 0.5 to 1°C.
13. The theca interna cells of the graafian follicle are distinguished by their
capacity to produce androgens from cholesterol.
14. The next ovulatory cycle after implantation is postponed because of the
production of hCG by trophoblast cells.
15. Spinnbarkeit formation is induced by estrogen action on the vaginal
secretions.
16. Implantation occur only after priming of the uterine endometrium by
progesterone and estrogen.
17. Successful fertilization is most likely to occur when the oocyte is in the
oviduct and has entered the second meiotic division.
18. The enzyme, 5a-reductase is responsible for Conversion of testosterone to
dihydrotestosterone.
19. Regarding suckling reflex triggers the release of oxytocin by stimulating the
supraoptic nuclei.
20. Contact between the sperm head and the zona pellucida, penetration of the
sperm into the egg is allowed because of the acrosome reaction.
21. Inhibin is an ovarian hormone that is produced by granulosa cells and inhibits
the secretion of FSH.
22. Oral steroidal contraceptives are most effective in preventing pregnancy by
blocking ovulation.
23. An index of the binding affinity of a hormone for its receptor can be obtained
by examining the slope of a Scatchard plot.
24. Most peptide and protein hormones are synthesized as a preprohormone.
 Salivary Glands, Esophagus and Stomach
1. Chymotrypsinogen is a Zymogen.
2. Max potassium ions present in Saliva .
3. Intrinsic factor of castle is + in Parietal cells .
4. Deglutition is Primary peristalsis of oesophagus.
5. Prostaglandin that helps in protecting Gl mucosa is PGE2.
6. Bitter taste is perceived mainly by Posterior 1/3.
7. In stomach the acid is secreted by Active secretion .
8. The requirement of folic acid during pregnancy is 300gg.
9. Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin because of Low pH (Gastric acid).
10. Gastrin regulates the gastric acid secretion at Antrum.
11. Parasympathetic nerve mediates cephalic phase of gastric secretion.
12. Oxyntic cells are found in Stomach.
13. Antrum is the primary site of production of gastrin.
14. Mixing waves of stomach originates in body of stomach.
15. Parasympathetic stimulation induces salivary acinar cells to release the
protease Kallikrein.
16. Intrinsic factor protein is absent in saliva.
17. The chief cells of the stomach secrete Pepsinogen.
18. The interaction of histamine with its H2 receptor in the parietal cell results
in an increase in intracellular cAMP production.
19. When the pH of the stomach lumen falls below 3, the antrum of the
stomach releases a peptide that acts locally to inhibit gastrin release. This
peptide is Somatostatin.
20. Stimulation for gastric emptying is brought by Gastrin.
21. Parietal cells in the stomach secrete a protein crucial for the absorption of
vitamin B12 by the ileum. This protein is Intrinsic factor.

Gall Bladder, Liver, Pancreas & Bile

1. Cholecystokinin does not increase gastrin secretion.
2. CCK stimulates gallbladder contraction.
3. Chloride is major difference between hepatic bile and gallbladder bile.
4. Secretin inhibits gastric secretion.
5. The mechanism that protects normal pancreas from autodigestion is
proteolytic enzymes secreted in inactive form.
6. Estrogen is increased in blood level hepatectomy.
7. Pancreatic juice has highest pH.
8. Secretin stimulates pancreatic secretion that is rich in bicarbonate.
9. The arterial blood glucose concentration in normal humans after a meal is in
the range of 120 to 150 mg/dl_.
10. Because free ammonia in the blood is toxic to the body, it is transported in
Glutamine and urea non-toxic forms.
11. The liver removes LDLs in the blood by the LDLs binding to LDL receptors
and then internalizing them.
12. Bile acid uptake by hepatocytes is dependent on Sodium.

Small and Large Intestine

1. Nitric Oxide In GIT acts Primarily as Smooth Muscle relaxant.
2. Sigmoid colon have maximum Post prandial contractibility.
3. Dipeptidase enzyme is secreted by intestine.
4. Acidity of Chyme is the most important stimulus for the release of secretin
from duodenal mucosa.
5. The most important stimulus for release of secretin is Amino acids.
6. Short chain fatty acid produced by bacteria are maximally absorbed in
Colon.
7. Intestinal absorption is faster for Hexoses.
8. Hirschsprung disease is due to failure of migration of neural crest cells from
cranial to caudal direction.
9. Fat in duodenum results in Gall bladder contraction.
10. Antiperistalsis is normally seen in Colon.
11. Maximum absorption of water occurs in jejunum.
12. Gastric secretions decreased by Somatostatin.
13. Calcium absorption in gut is increased in alkaline ph.
14. Transit time is slowest in colon.
15. Fe2+ conversion from fe 3+ enzyme responsible is Reductase.
16. Chylomicrons function to transport lipids.
17. Massive small bowel resection, the intestine compensate by lengthened
 individual villi.
18. In the git, skeletal muscle is present in oesophagus.
19. Vagal stimulation increases gastrin secretion. This is mediated by group or
gastrin-releasing peptide.
20. Max potassium ions present in Saliva.
21. Main enzyme for digestion of alpha-dextrin is isomaltase.
22. The optimum pH for pepsin action is 1.6 to 3.2.
23. Passive absorption is for Lipids.
24. The maximum contribution to the total endogenous water secretion in GIT
is from Stomach .
25. Maximum water is absorbed from Jejunum.
26. Fructose is absorbed by Facilitated Diffusion.
27. Protein digestion begins in Saliva.
28. Von Ebner's glands secrete Lingual lipase.
29. Lipids form micelles by interacting with Bile salts.
30. Bile salts are maximally absorbed in ileum.
31. Cholera toxin acts on Cl with channel in luminal membrane.
32. Auerbach's plexus is concerned primarily with Motor control.
33. Basic electrical rhythm (B.E.R.) is not seen in Oesophagus.
34. The rate of B.E.R. is minimum in Stomach.
35. 'Receptive relaxation' is seen in Stomach.
36. The salivary juice output from the duct is always hypotonic.
37. The cells of the stomach cannot secrete Pepsin.
38. Postprandial alkaline tide can be attributed to Oxyntic Cells.
39. Enteropeptidase act on Trypsinogen.
40. The primary bile acids are Cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid.
41. Critical micelle concentration refers to the critical levels of Bile salts.
42. Maltase hydrolyzes maltose to form Glucose.
43. After a meal, dietary lipid is absorbed by small intestine and transported in
the lymph mainly as Chylomicrons.
44. Vitamin D stimulates calcium absorption by the Gl tract.
45. Vitamin A is transported in chylomicrons as an ester.
46. Potassium is absorbed in the jejunum by Passive transport.
47. Ascorbic acid is a potent enhancer of iron absorption because it is a
reducing agent, thereby helping to keep iron in the ferrous state.
 Blood
1. "C" in CRP stands for the C- polysaccharide of Pneumococcus.
2. ABO antigens are not found in CSF .
3. Rh factor is Mucopolysaccharide.
4. Factor XIII helps in bridging the fibrin in a clot and stabilizing the clot.
5. Clotting factor present in both plasma and serum is Factor VII.
6. The life span of RBC is 120 days.
7. Glycophorin is present in Erythrocyte.
8. In hemopoiesis G-CSF and GM-CSF causes Granulocytosis.
9. Cell type, which lacks HLA antigen, is Red blood cell.
10. The function common to neutrophils, monocyte& macrophage is
Phagocytosis.
11. In Hb iron remains as Fe3+ form in Meth HB .
12. The blood in the vessels normally does not clot because Vascular
endothelium is smooth and coated with glycocalyx .
13. Aggregins are meant for platelet aggregation.
14. Secondary granules of neutrophils contain Lactoferrin
15. B lymphocytes are associated with CD19.
16. Immune complexes are removed from blood by Kupffer cell
17. Thromboxane A2promotes platelet aggregation.
18. Erythropoietin promotes erythropoiesis.
19. Thymus secretes thymopoietin.
20. Platelets secrete Thromboxane A.
21. Erythropoietin is secreted when Decreased tissue pO2 concentration .
22. Factors X, V and Ca++ are required for the conversion of prothrombin to
thrombin.
23. VI clotting factor is not formed by liver.
24. In clotting mechanism factor IV is NOT involved.
25. Heme is converted to bilirubin mainly in liver.
26. Vitamin K dependent clotting factor is Factor VII.
27. Hematopoiesis in yolk sac start at 3rd week.
28. Interleukin specific for eosinophil is IL-5.
29. PDGF (or platelet-derived growth factor) is secreted from alpha granules of
platelets.
30. Clonal selections the process that amplifies the number of T cells or B cells
programmed to respond to a specific infectious stimulus.
31. Antibody specificity is determined by the amino acid sequence within the
variable region.
32. The first step in the extrinsic coagulation pathway is release of tissue
thromboplastin.
33. A reactant generated by neutrophils that plays an important role in
bacterial killing is superoxide anion.

Recent & High Yield Updated LMRPs

1. Maximum secretion of IGF-1 is from Liver.
2. Glucose is transported across intestinal lumen via secondary active
transport.
3. In Export of ions from nucleus to extracellular matrix not involve Ran
proteins
4. Descending is PERMEABLE to water and ascending is impermeable
5. C wave in JVP is caused by Bulging of AV valve during isovolumetric
contraction
6.
Increase in serum sodium causes decrease in ADH and increase in ANP
Levels
7.
8. If V/Q approach infinity, it means pO2 is maximum and Pco2 is minimum.
Release of synaptic vesicles from the presynaptic terminals is inhibited by
9. prevention of Ca+2 influx.
10. Proprioceptor of the joints are slow adapting.
11. Baroreceptor is negative type of feedback
During exercise ESV & DBP decreases and rest all other parameters
12. increases.
13. The diluting segment of kidney is ascending thick loop Henle.
Connexons are involved in electrical synapse(please separate the
14. sentence)
15. Forced expiration: Ventral respiratory group
16. Antegrade relaxation: VIP
17. Slowest nerve fibres is postganglionic sympathetic
Tubuloglomerular feedback most important determinant is sodium
concentration
18. BAIN BRIDGE reflex is due to stretching of right atrium which leads to
increase in Heart rate.
19. In Decerebrate rigidity extension of both upper and lower limb while in
Decorticate flexion of upper limb and extension of lower limb occur.
20. ADH increases aquaporin2Testosterone: Leydig cells
21. Golgi Tendon organ detects tension.
22. Peripheral chemoreceptors: Potassium channel
23. PGI2: Vasodilation and inhibit platelet aggregation
24. Hypothalamus decreases prolactin inhibiting factor (PIF) which is also
known as Dopamine
25. Correct regarding T3 and T4 acting on thyroid stimulating receptor (TSR) is
it acts as a transcription factor.
26. Erythropoietin is effective in CFU stage of RBC formation.
27. Leptin hormone has a permissive role during puberty.
28. S3 maybe a normal heart sound during pregnancy.
29. Integrin connect actin to Fibronectin macromolecule in ECM.
30. Most effective parameter to change the blood flow to tissue bed is
diameter of vessel
31. Weber Fechner law is related to Intensity of stimulus
32. Maximum area in homunculus signifies Increased perceiveness of
movements
33. Part of body is "Immune privileged" site: Seminiferous tubules.
34. High compliance lungs:
o Curve shifting upward & left with steep slopes,
o Emphysema
35. Cardiac output is measured by Fick's principle, Echo cardiography,
Thermodilution technique.
36. Fibers reaching directly to purkinje cell to cerebellum arise from Inferior
olivary nucleus.