Differentiation I

DIFFERENTIATION I (Calculus)

Tangents and Normals

Gradient Function
One can find the gradient of a curve (i.e. the rate of increase of y with respect to x) at a
particular point on the curve. Since this curve is described by the function, y = x(2x – 1).

Then one could say that one can determine the gradient of the curve y = x(2x – 1) at a
particular point on the curve by substituting in the x – coordinate of that particular point
into the function 4x – 1.

Thus (accordingly) 4x – 1 is called the gradient function of y = (2x – 1).

The act or the process of deriving it is called Differentiation with respect to (w.r.t.), x.

The 4x – 1 was derived from the function x(2x – 1)

And so 4x – 1 is called the derivative ( or the derived function) of x(2x – 1).

Using the notation d as a symbol to show ‘the derivative w. r. t. x of ..’

dx

The abbreviation w. r. t. means ‘with respect to’

Examples of how it maybe written/used is

d [x(2x – 1) = 4x OR dy [x(2x – 1) = 4x
dx dx

and is read as ‘the derivative of the function x(2x -1) w. r. t. x, is equal to 4x -1’

‘the derive function w. r. t. x of the function x(2x -1) is equal to 4x – 1’

It can also be written/used when y = x(2x -1), dy = 4x -1

dx

where the part dy is read ‘the derivative of y w. r. t. x’

dx

Another name for the notation dy is the ‘differential coefficient of y’

dx
As an alternative notation we can use the symbol ‘D’ for ‘the derivative of’ Or ‘the
derived function of’.
 Differentiation I

D [x(2x – 1)] = 4x – 1

Where the D is referred to as the ‘Differential Operator’.

 NB - 4x – 1 the function(A.K.A the gradient function) represents ‘the rate of

increase of y w.r.t. x.

 NB – Anywhere the notation dy is written/printed it represents ‘the rate of

dx
increase of y w. r. t. x.

The notation dv means the derivative of v w.r.t. t or ‘the rate of

dt
increase of v w. r. t. t. (acceleration = a)

The notation ds means the derivative of s w.r.t. t or ‘the rate of

dt
increase of s w. r. t. t. (velocity = v)

The notation dθ means the derivative of θ w.r.t. t or ‘the rate of

dt
increase of θ w. r. t. t. (angular speed = ω).

General Differentiation

Let one consider any curve which is described by the function y = f (x)

Let A [x, f(x)] be any point on the curve (i.e. y = f (x).

Let δ x (i.e. delta x) be the increase in the x coordinate in moving from the point A to
B on the same curve.
And so then the coordinates of the point B are [x + δ x, f(x + δ x )].

Let δy (i.e. delta y) be the corresponding increase in the y – coordinate in moving

from point A to point B,
i.e. that the vertical rise y2 – y1 ≡ δy = f(x + δ x ) – f(x)

B [x + δ x, f(x + δ x )]

Vertical δy
rise
 Differentiation I

A [x, f(x)]

δx
horizontal shift
o

y = f(x)

The gradient of the line AB = δ y = f(x + δ x) – f(x)

δx δx

Therefore the gradient at A is

lim {δy } = lim { f(x + δ x) – f(x) }

δ x →0 δx→0
{δx } { δx }

lim means ‘as the increase in the x values approaches 0’

δ x →0

dy = lim {δy } OR dy f(x) = lim { f (x + δ x) – f(x) }

δ x →0 δx→0
dx {δx } dx { δx }

 NB – The two above formal definitions of differentiation maybe used to

differentiate any function. The above process is called differentiating from first
principle.

TYPES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Certain categories of functions can be differentiated by rules and do not require

differentiation by 1st principle.

Differentiation of a constant

If one were to consider the equation y = c. This represents a straight line parallel to the x
– axis and so it has zero (0) gradient.

c y=c

dy = 0
dx
 Differentiation I

dy (c) = 0
dx

Differentiation of xn where n ˃1

To differentiate a power of x we multiply the x by the power and then subtract 1 from the
power/index on the x i.e.

d xn = d (xn) = nxn-1
dx dx

 NB: The above rule is valid for all powers of x including fractional and negative
powers/indices.
 This rule, like so many you will encounter MUST for the time being taken
accepted on trust.(taken for what it is for now)

Differentiation of axn where a is a constant and n = 1

Consider the equation y = ax. This represents a straight line with a gradient a
y

d (axn) = a d (xn) = anxn-1

dx dx

d (axn) = a nxn-1
dx

 NB: Differentiation is an operation that is distributive across the ADDITION

and SUBTRACTION of functions: i. e.

y = f(x) + g(x)
Hence

d [ f (x) + g (x) ] = d f(x) + d g(x)

dx dx dx
 Differentiation I

Therefore
d (3x2 – 7x) = d (3x2) – d (7x)
dx dx dx

= 3(2x2 – 1) – 7(x1-1)

= 3(2x) – 7(1)

= 6x – 7

d (x2 + 3x) = d (x2) + d (3x)

dx dx dx

= 2x2 – 1 + 3(x1-1)

= 2x + 3

d (x2 – 2x + 1) = d (x2) – d (2x) + d (1)

dx dx dx dx

= 2(x2 – 1) – 2(x1-1) + 0

= 2x – 2

d (x + 1 ) ≡ d (x + x-1) * NB [change 1 to its index form x-1]

dx x dx x

Thus
d (x + 1 ) = d (x) + d (x-1)
dx x dx dx

= x1 – 1 – (x -1 - 1)

= x0 – x -2

= 1 – x -2 or 1 – 1
x2

 NB – Differentiation is NOT distributive across multiplication and division case

in point for the function x(x – 3).

d x[(x – 3)] = d (x2 – 3x) = d (x2) – d (3x)

 Differentiation I

dx dx dx dx

= 2(x2 – 1) – 3(x1-1)

= 2x – 3

 NB – the function had to be expanded before it could be differentiated

However
[ d (x)] × [ d (x – 3)] ≡ [ d (x) ] × [ d (x) – d (x2) – d (3) ]
dx dx dx dx dx dx

= (x1 – 1) ×[( x1 – 1) – 0]

= x0 × x0

= (1) × (1)

=1

That is to say
d [x(x – 3)] = d (x) × d (x2 – 3)
dx dx dx

† NB: In order to differentiate a function such as f(x) = x (x – 3) or f(x) = 4x2 + x – 1

2x
ANY PRODUCT must be first Expanded and ANY QUOTIENT must be divided out to
give terms which are ADDED or SUBTRACTED.

Equations of Tangents and Normals

Now that one know how to find the gradient of a curve at a given point on the curve. One
can find the equation of the tangent or normal.

Example 1. 5e.

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x2 – 3x + 2 at the point where it
cuts/intersect with the y – axis.
 Differentiation I

y = x2 – 3x + 2 cuts the y – axis

where x = 0, y = 2

(0, 2)
x
0

The gradient of the tangent at a point (0, 2) is the value of dy when x = 0

dx

As y = x2 – 3x + 2, the derivative dy = 2x2 – 1 – 3x1 – 1 + 2 = 2x – 3

dx

So dy = 2x – 3
dx

When x = 0 the gradient of the curve is – 3.

Therefore the tangent has a gradient – 3 and passes through (0, 2)

So the equation of the tangent is y = – 3x + 2.

i.e.(that is to say that) 3x + y – 2 = 0.

Example. 2

Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 1 at the point on the curve where x =
2. x

Since y = 1 , ≡ x – l , dy = – x – l – 1 = x – 2
x dx

dy = – 1
dx x2

So when x = 2, y = 1 and dy = –1
2 dx 4
 Differentiation I

(2, ½)
0
x

Therefore the tangent at the point (2, ½ ) has a gradient of – ¼

The normal (i.e. the line perpendicular to the tangent) at the point (2, ½ ) has a gradient
of 4
The equation of this normal is y – ½ = 4(x – 2 )

Stationary Values

A stationary value of a function f(x) is any value of f (x) at which its rate of change with
respect to x is zero (0). (that is to say that the derivative of a function is zero).

That is to say that the stationary values of f(x) occur when d [ f(x)] = 0
dx

For a graphical representation of a stationary value, consider the curve whose equation is

y = f (x)
At stationary value of f(x) dy = 0
dx
i.e. (that is to say that) the gradient (slope) of the curve is ZERO
 Differentiation I

i.e. (that is to say that) the tangent to the curve is parallel to the x – axis.

(x, y)

(x, –y)

Therefore stationary values of f(x) are the values of the y – coordinates of points on the
curve y = f(x) at which the tangent is parallel to the x – axis.

Turning Points
The gradient of a curve can be zero at several points.

The shape of the curve in the immediate neighbourhood of one of these points belong to
one of the three categories shown below:

A C

Moving along the curve in the positive direction of x – axis.

a) In the neighbourhood of A, the gradient changes from + ve through zero at A, to – ve .

The point at A, is called a Maximum turning point.

The y – coordinate of A is called a Maximum value of y [OR of f(x) where y = f(x)].

b) In the neighbourhood of B, the gradient changes from – ve, through zero at B, to + ve.
 Differentiation I

The point at B, is called a minimum turning point.

The y – coordinate of B is called a minimum value of y [OR of f(x) where y = f(x)].

c) The Curve DOES NOT TURN at C, i.e. that although the gradient is zero at C, IT
DOES NOT CHANGE sign when moving through the point C.

However the sense in which the curve is turning does change (from clockwise to anti
-clockwise).

 NB: The gradient at a Maximum or minimum turning point MUST BE ZERO.

 NB: The terms Maximum or minimum values are NOT SYNONYMOUS with
greatest or least values.

 Maxima(Maximum value) and minima(minimum value) apply to the behaviour

of a function in the immediate neighbourhood only of its stationary values.

A C

B
O

Any point on a curve at which the sense of turning changes is called a point of
inflexion.

Apart from C, there are two other points of inflexion in the diagram one between A
and B and another between B and C.

A C
A1 A2 C1 C2

B1 B2
B
O
 Differentiation I

Consider the points A, B, and C which are left and right respectively of A, B and C
and close to them.

For A (a Maximum value)

y at A1 ˂ y at A

the y value at A1 is larger than the y value at A(the stationary value)

y at A2 ˂ y at A

the y value at A2 is smaller than the y value at A(the stationary value)

For B (a minimum value)

y at B1 ˃ y at B

the y value at B1 is larger than the y value at B(the stationary value)

y at B2 ˃ y at B

the y value at B2 is larger than the y value at B(the stationary value)

For C (a point of inflexion)

y at C1 ˂ y at C

the y value at C1 is smaller than the y value at C(the stationary value)

y at C2 ˂ y at C

the y value at C2 is larger than the y value at C(the stationary value)

* NB – The gradient at a point of inflexion is not necessarily ZERO

Maximum minimum Inflexion

Values of y Both Both One smaller
 Differentiation I

Either side smaller Larger And one larger

Of a stationary
Value.

Maximum minimum Inflexion

Sign of dy when + 0 – – 0 + + 0 + – 0 –
dx or
moving through
a stationary value.

When passing through A changes from + ve to –ve

That is to say that the derivative dy decreases as x increase

dx

or that the rate of increase w.r.t. x dy is – ve

dx

that is to say that d2x is – ve

dx2

Similarly when passing through B changes from – ve to + ve

That is to say that the derivative dy increases as x increase

dx

or that the rate of increase w.r.t. x dy is + ve

dx

that is to say that d2x is + ve

dx2

* NB – The clumsy notation for the rate of increase w.r.t. x of dy is condensed to d2y .
dx dx2
How this notation is arrived at is shown below:

d dy ≡ d2y
dx dx dx2

Points of Inflexion are not so easily dealt with by this method.

 Differentiation I

It is true to say d2y = 0 at such points

dx2

But,
.
* NB - that d2y can also be ZERO at Maxima and minima.
dx2

Maximum minimum
2
Sign of d y Negative Positive
when Or Zero Or Zero
dx2

The three tables above summarises the three alternative methods for determining the
nature of stationary values.

The third method FAILS if at a stationary value of y, d2y is found to be zero.

dx2
In this case either of the first two methods has to be used.

Example 5g.

1) Find the points on y = x4 + 4x3 – 6 at which the gradient is zero and determine the
nature of these points.

If y = x4 + 4x3 – 6 [1]

dy x4 + 4x3 – 6 = 4x 4 – 1 + (4)(3)x3 – 1 – 0 (just to be clear – j.t.b.c )

dx

dy = 4x3 + 12 x2 [2]
dx

d dy ≡ d2y
dx dx dx2

d ( 4x3 + 12 x2) = (3)(4)x3 – 1 + 12(2)x2 – 1 = 12x2 + 24x j.t.b.c

dx

and so, d2y = 12x2 + 24x [3]

 Differentiation I

dx2

The gradient of equation [1], is ZERO when dy = 0

dx

that is to say when 4x3 + 12 x2 = 0

simplifying expression 4x3 + 12 x2 = 0, by factorization would give

→ 4x2 (x + 3) = 0

Finding the roots to the quadratic equation gives the x values for the function

→ 4x2 = 0 or (x+3) = 0

x=0 x= –3

So when x = – 3 dy = 0
dx

And from using the value(s) of x in equation [3] d2y 12x2 + 24x = 12(– 3)2 + 24((– 3)
dx2
= 108 – 72 = 36
2
d y = 36
dx2

d2y ˃ 0 [36 greater than 0 hence a min. turning point]

dx2

Therefore y has a minimum value here.

Now from equation [1] y = (– 3)4 + 4(– 3)3 – 6 = – 33

Therefore ( – 3, – 33) is the minimum turning point.

When x = 0 dy = 0, y= –6
dx

and d2y = 0 which is inconclusive(can/t say if its max or min)

dx2

The Nature of the Points

Let us now see what the sign of dy is on either side of the point where x = 0
dx
 Differentiation I

x –1 0 +
1

dy + 0 +
dx

∕
—
slop ∕
e

From this table one can see that (0, – 6) is a point of inflexion

2) Sketch the curve y = 2x3 + x2 – 4x + 1

Finding the Maximum and the minimum turning points will help to give a general
idea of the shape and position of the curve.

Now if y = 2x3 + x2 – 4x + 1
dy = 2x3 + x2 – 4x + 1 = 2(3)x3 – 1 + 2x2 – 1 – 4x1 – 1 + 0 = 6x2 + 2x – 4
dx

dy = 6x2 + 2x – 4
dx

d2y 6x2 + 2x – 4 = 6(2)x2 – 1 + 2x1 – 1 + 0 = 12x +2

dx2

d2y = 12x +2
dx2
At the turning points dy = 0, i.e. (that is to say) 6x2 + 2x – 4 = 0
dx

simplifying expression 6x2 + 2x – 4 = 0, by factorization would give

(3x – 2)(x + 1) = 0

Finding the roots to the quadratic equation gives the x values for the function

(3x – 2)(x + 1) = 0

x=⅔ x=–1
When x = ⅔ dy = 0
dx

d2y = 12(⅔) +2 = 10
dx2
 Differentiation I

d2y ˃ 0 [10 greater than 0 hence a min. turning point]

dx2

y = 2x3 + x2 – 4x + 1

y = 2(⅔)3 + (⅔)2 – 4(⅔) + 1 = – 17

52
y = – 17
52
Therefore (⅔ , – 17 ) is a minimum turning point [3]
27

When x = – 1, dy = 0
dx

d2y = 12( – 1 ) +2 = – 10
dx2

d2y ˂ 0 [– 10 less than 0 hence a Max turning point]

dx2

y = 2x3 + x2 – 4x + 1

y = 2( – 1 )3 + (– 1)2 – 4(– 1) + 1 = 4

y=4

Therefore (– 1, 4) is a Maximum turning point [2]

As the curve cuts/intersects with the y – axis at (0, 1) [3]

From results [1], [2] and [3] one may sketch the curve below:

max. turning point 4

1
⅔ x
–l 0
– 17/27 min. turning point