Chapter 4 Notes

CHEM 1411 General Chemistry Chemistry: A Molecular Approach by Nivaldo J. Tro

4 Chemical Quantities
and Aqueous Reactions
Chapter Objectives:
• Learn how to use the mole concept to relate
amounts of chemicals to each other
(stoichiometry).
• Learn how to find the theoretical yield in
limiting reactant problems.
• Learn how to use molarity to perform
calculations involving solution stoichiometry.
• Learn how to recognize and predict products in
precipitation, neutralization, redox, and other
types of chemical reactions.

Mr. Kevin A. Boudreaux

Angelo State University 1
www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea

Introduction
• Much of the chemistry (both biological and non-
biological) that takes place on Earth involves water
in some fashion:
– Almost 75% of the Earth’s surface is covered by
water or ice.
– About 66% of the human body consists of water.
– A lot of important chemistry takes place in
aqueous solution, in which the solvent is water.
• In this chapter, we’ll see how some types of
chemical reactions take place and how we can
organize chemical reactions into different types.
Most of these reactions will take place in aqueous
solutions.
2
Chapter 4 Notes

Stoichiometry

From Molecules to Moles to Grams

• Since moles combine in the same ratio that atoms or
molecules do, the coefficients in a balanced
chemical reaction specify the relative amounts in
moles of each of the substances involved in the
reaction.
This many react with this to make this
molecules many molecules many molecules
of H2 of O2 of H2O

2 H2 (g) + 1 O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)

This many react with this to make this
moles many moles many moles
of H2 of O2 of H2O
4
Chapter 4 Notes

Stoichiometry: Chemical Arithmetic

stoicheion metron
Greek: +
element or part measure
• Stoichiometry is the study of the numerical
relationships in chemical formulas and reactions.
– Knowing the stoichiometry of a formula allows
us to relate moles and grams for particular
reactants or products (e.g., that 1 mole of H2O
weighs 18.02 g).
– Knowing the stoichiometry of a reaction allows
us to relate amounts of different substances to
each other, and allows us to predict how much of
the products will be formed or how much of the
reactants will be needed.
5

Reaction Stoichiometry: An Example

2 H2 (g) + 1 O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)
• Suppose we have 32.0 g of O2. How many grams of
H2 will be needed for this reaction? How many
grams of H2O will be produced?
– We can’t convert grams of O2 directly into grams
of H2 or H2O.
– However, we can convert grams of O2 into moles,
and use the coefficients of the balanced equation
to obtain moles of H2 and H2O, and then convert
those numbers into grams.

6
Chapter 4 Notes

Reaction Stoichiometry: An Example

2 H2 (g) + 1 O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)
Convert g O2 to mol O2:
1 mol O 2
32.0 g O 2 × = 1.00 mol O 2
32.00 g O 2
Convert mol O2 to mol H2:
coefficient of what we’re interested in

2 mol H 2
1.00 mol O 2 × = 2.00 mol H 2
1 mol O 2
coefficient of what we’re canceling out

Convert mol H2 to g H2:

2.02 g H 2
2.00 mol H 2 × = 4.04 g H 2
1 mol H 2 7

Reaction Stoichiometry: An Example

2 H2 (g) + 1 O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)
Or we can put everything together:
1 mol O 2 2 mol H 2 2.02 g H 2
32.0 g O 2 × × × = 4.04 g H 2
32.00 g O 2 1 mol O 2 1 mol H 2

How many grams of H2O will be formed?

1 mol O 2 2 mol H 2 O 18.02 g H 2 O
32.0 g O 2 × × × = 36.0 g H 2 O
32.00 g O 2 1 mol O 2 1 mol H 2 O

8
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Reaction Stoichiometry

C3H 8 ( g ) + 5O 2 ( g ) → 3CO 2 ( g ) + 4H 2 O( g )
1a. How many moles of CO2 can we make from 2.0
moles of C3H8?
1b. How many moles of H2O can we make from 2.0
moles of C3H8?
1c. How many moles of O2 are needed to react with
2.0 moles of C3H8?
1d. How many moles of CO2 can be produced from
3.5 mol O2?
1e. How many grams of CO2 are produced from 50.0 g
of C3H8?
9

Examples: Reaction Stoichiometry

2. In 2004, the world burned 3.0×1010 barrels of
petroleum, roughly equivalent to 3.4×1015 g of
gasoline (C8H18). How much CO2 is released into
the atmosphere from the combustion of this much
gasoline? (p.134)
2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) → 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

Answer: 1.0×1016 g CO2 10

Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Reaction Stoichiometry

3. Aqueous sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), best known
as household bleach, is prepared by reaction of
sodium hydroxide with chlorine:
2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) → NaOCl(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O
How many grams of NaOH are needed to react with
25.0 g of Cl2?

Answer: 28.2 g NaOH 11

Examples: Molecule Stoichiometry

4. How many grams of Cl atoms are needed to
combine with 24.4 g of Si atoms to make silicon
tetrachloride, SiCl4?

Answer: 123 g Cl 12
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Reaction Stoichiometry

5. One of the most spectacular reactions of aluminum,
the thermite reaction, is with iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3,
by which metallic iron is made. So much heat is
generated that the iron forms in the liquid state. The
equation is
2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(l)
A certain welding operation, used over and over,
requires that each time at least 86.0 g of Fe be
produced. (a) What is the minimum mass in grams
of Fe2O3 that must be used for each operation? (b)
How many grams of aluminum are also needed?

Answer: (a) 123 g Fe2O3; (b) 41.5 g Al 13

Yields of Chemical Reactions

• In the examples we’ve seen, we have assumed that
all of the reactions “go to completion” — that is, that
all reactant molecules are converted into products.
In real life, some product is almost always lost due
to small amounts of contamination present in the
glassware, impurities in the reactants, incomplete
reactions, insufficient heating, klutzes, gremlins, evil
spirits, evil co-workers, or side reactions that that
form other products.
• The theoretical yield is the amount that would be
obtained if the reaction goes to completion (i.e., the
maximum amount that could be made).
• The actual yield of a reaction is the amount that is
actually obtained. (You could’ve guessed that.)
14
Chapter 4 Notes

Yields of Chemical Reactions

• The percent yield (% yield) is the actual yield
expressed as a percentage of the theoretical yield:
actual yield
% yield = × 100%
theoretical yield

• The reactant we run out of first, which limits the

yield of the entire reaction, is the limiting reactant
(or limiting reagent).
• The reactant in excess is any reactant that is present
in a larger amount than what is required to react
completely with the limiting reactant.

15

Examples: Percent Yield

6. Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE, C5H12O), a
substance used as an octane booster in gasoline, can
be made by reaction of isobutylene (C4H8), with
methanol (CH3OH). What is the percent yield of
the reaction if 32.8 g of MTBE is obtained from
reaction of 26.3 g of isobutylene with sufficient
methanol?
C4H8(g) + CH3OH(l) → C5H12O(l)

Answer: 79.4%
16
Chapter 4 Notes

Limiting Reactants
• When we are given a reaction between two or more
reactants, one may be completely consumed before
the other(s). The reaction must stop at this point,
leaving us with the remaining reactants in excess.
• The amount of this reactant, then, determines the
maximum amount of the product(s) that can form,
and is known as the limiting reactant.
• For example, suppose we were making standard 4-
door cars, and we had the following (incomplete) list
of “ingredients.” How many cars could we make?
4 engines 4 drivers’ seats
4 steering wheels 4 rear-view mirrors
15 doors 8 windshield wipers
8 headlights 11 wheels 17

Limiting Reactants and Sundaes

18
Chapter 4 Notes

Limiting Reactants and Pizza

Pizza recipe:
1 crust + 5 oz. tomato sauce + 2 cups cheese → 1 pizza
If we have 4 crusts, 10 cups of cheese, and 15 oz. of
tomato sauce, how many pizzas can we make?
1 pizza
4 crusts × = 4 pizzas
1 crust
1 pizza
10 cups cheese × = 5 pizzas
2 cups cheese
1 pizza
15 ounces tomato sauce × = 3 pizzas
5 ounces tomato sauce
Tomato sauce is the limiting reagent, and the
theoretical yield is 3 pizzas.
19

Limiting Reactants and Pizza

20
Chapter 4 Notes

Limiting Reactants
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) [Haber process]
• Suppose we mix 1.00 mol of N2 and 5.00 mol of H2.
What is the maximum amount of NH3 that can be
produced? How much H2 will be left over?
• Now suppose we mix 2.15 mol of N2 and 6.15 mol
of H2. What is the theoretical yield of NH3?
Assuming the N2 reacts completely, how much NH3 can be made?
2 mol NH 3
2.15 mol N 2 × = 4.30 mol NH 3
1 mol N 2
Assuming the H2 reacts completely, how much NH3 can be made?
2 mol NH 3
MOV: 6.15 mol H 2 × = 4.10 mol NH 3
Limiting
Reagent 3 mol H 2
H2 is the limiting reactant; the theoretical yield of NH3 is 4.10 mol 21

Examples: Limiting Reactants

7. Butane, C4H10, undergoes combustion with oxygen,
O2, to form carbon dioxide and water:
2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
58.12 g/mol 32.00 g/mol 44.01 g/mol 18.02 g/mol

If 100. g of C4H10 and 100. g of O2 are mixed,

a. Which of the two reactants is the limiting reagent,
and how many grams of CO2 will be formed?
b. How many grams of H2O will be formed?
c. How many grams of excess reagent are left over?
d. If the actual yield of CO2 had been 75.0 g, what
would be the percent yield of the reaction?
.
Answer: (a) O2 limiting; 84.6 g CO2; (b) 43.3 g
H2O; (c) 72 g C4H10; (d) 88.6% 22
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Limiting Reactants

8. Ammonia, NH3, can be synthesized by the
following reaction:
2NO(g) + 5H2(g) → 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(g)
Starting with 86.3 g NO and 25.6 g H2, find the
theoretical yield of ammonia in grams. (Ex. 4.3)

Answer: NO limiting; 49.0 g NH3.

23

Examples: Limiting Reactants

9. In a synthesis of phosphorus trichloride, a chemist
mixed 12.0 g P with 35.0 g Cl2; she obtained 42.4 g
of PCl3. What is the % yield of PCl3?
2P(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2PCl3(l)

Answer: 93.8%
24
Chapter 4 Notes

Solution
Stoichiometry

25

Solutions
• For a chemical reaction to occur, the reacting species
have to come in close contact with each other. Most
chemical reactions are performed in a solution (or in
the gas phase) rather than in the solid state.
• A solution consists of a smaller amount of one
substance, the solute (usually a liquid or solid),
dissolved in a larger amount of another substance,
the solvent (usually a liquid).
– Other kinds of solutions, such as of two or more
solids (e.g., metal alloys), or gases dissolved in
solids, or gases dissolved in other gases (e.g., the
atmosphere), are also possible.
• Solutions in which water is the solvent are known as
aqueous solutions.
26
Chapter 4 Notes

Dilute and Concentrated Solutions

• A solution that contains a small amount of solute
relative to the solvent is a dilute solution.
• A solution that contains a large amount of solute
relative to the solvent is a concentrated solution.

27
Figure 4.4

Solution Stoichiometry — Molarity

• We must know the amount of material present in a
certain volume of solution — the concentration —
in order to perform measurements and calculations.
• A common unit of concentration is molarity (M),
defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of
solution (that’s solution, not solvent!):
moles of solute
Molarity ( M ) = = mol / L = mol L-1
liters of solution

• The molarity of a solution can be used as a

conversion factor to relate the solution volume to the
number of moles of solute present.

28
Chapter 4 Notes

Making Solutions of a Desired Molarity

• Because the volume of a solution comes from the
solute and the solvent, a 1 molar solution cannot be
made by adding one mole of solute to 1 L of solvent.
• Solutions of a desired molarity are usually prepared
by placing the appropriate amount of solute in a
volumetric flask, and
adding solvent until
a calibrated final
volume is reached
(with frequent
swirling to make
sure the solute
dissolves).

29
Figure 4.5

Solution Dilution
• Solutions can also be prepared by diluting a more
concentrated stock solution.
Concentrated solution + Solvent → Dilute solution
• The initial molarity (M1) and volume (V1) of a
concentrated solution are related to the final molarity
(M2) and volume (V2) of a dilute solution by the
following equation:
M1 V1 = M2 V2
Note that the units for
volume don’t actually
matter in this equation.

30
MOV: Solution by Dilution Figure 4.6
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Molarity
10. What is the molarity of a solution made by
dissolving 2.355 g of sulfuric acid in water and
diluting to a final volume of 50.0 mL? (sim. to Ex.
4.5)

Answer: 0.480 M H2SO4 31

Examples: Molarity
11. How many grams of solute are in 1.75 L of 0.460
M sodium monohydrogen phosphate?

Answer: 114 g 32
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Molarity
12. How many liters of a 0.125 M NaOH solution
contains 0.255 mol of NaOH? (Ex. 4.6)

Answer: 2.04 L soln. 33

Examples: Solution by Dilution

13. Isotonic saline is a 0.150 M aqueous solution of
NaCl that simulates the total concentration of ions
found in many cellular fluids. Its uses range from
a cleansing rinse for contact lenses to a washing
medium for red blood cells. How would you
prepare 800. mL of isotonic saline from a 6.00 M
stock solution?

Answer: 20.0 mL 34
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Solution by Dilution

14. To what volume should you dilute 0.200 L of a
15.0 M NaOH solution to obtain a 3.00 M NaOH
solution? (Ex. 4.7).

Answer: 1.00 L 35

Examples: Stoichiometry of Reactions in Soln

15. Stomach acid, a dilute solution of HCl in water, can
be neutralized by reaction with sodium bicarbonate
according to the equation
HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
How many mL of 0.125 M NaHCO3 solution are
needed to neutralize 18.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl?
(sim. to Ex. 4.8)

Answer: 14.4 mL 36
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Stoichiometry of Reactions in Soln

16. Lead(II) chloride is produced from the reaction of
aqueous lead(II) nitrate and sodium chloride
according to the equation
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
If 15.0 mL of 2.00 M Pb(NO3)2 and 45.0 mL of
1.15 M NaCl are reacted with each other, how many
grams of PbCl2 will be produced?

Answer: 7.20 g PbCl2 37

38
Chapter 4 Notes

Strong Electrolytes,
Weak Electrolytes,
and Nonelectrolytes
39

Solute and Solvent Interactions

• When a solid is put into a liquid solvent such as
water, there is a competition between the forces of
attraction among the particles of the solute (solute-
solute interactions) and the forces of attraction
between the solvent molecules and the particles in
the solute (solvent-solute interactions). Which
interactions are stronger determines whether the
solute dissolves.

40
Figure 4.7
Chapter 4 Notes

The Role of Water as a Solvent

• Many reactions take place in aqueous solution.
Water interacts with many substances, and plays an
active role in many chemical processes.
• Many ionic substances dissolve in water (to at least
some extent); water is very good at solvating
(dissolving) cations and anions.
– The O end of a water molecule has a slight
negative charge (a partial negative charge, δ-)
while the H ends have slight positive charges (a
partial positive charge, δ+).
– Water also has an overall bent shape.
– The combined effects of polar bonds in a bent
shape make water a polar molecule, having an
uneven distribution of electrons.
41

The Shape and Polarity of Water

O
O

H H H H

42
Figure 4.8
Chapter 4 Notes

Water as a Solvent
• When sodium chloride is dissolved in water, the Na+
and Cl- ions are attracted to each other, and both are
also attracted to water molecules.
– The Na+ ions are attracted to the partially
negative oxygen atom.
– The Cl- ions are attracted to the partially positive
hydrogen atoms.
– The attraction between the water and the ions is
greater than that of the ions for each other, and
the sodium chloride dissolves.

43
Figure 4.9

Water as a Solvent
• The ions are separated from each other, and are free
to move randomly through the solution, surrounded
by a crowd of water molecules.

44
Figure 4.10
Chapter 4 Notes

Water as a Solvent
• Sucrose (table sugar, C12H22O11) dissolves in water
because the partial charges on the atoms in the sugar
molecules interact strongly with the partial charges
on the atoms in water, but the sugar molecules
themselves don’t break apart.

45
Figure 4.12

Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution

• Substances that dissolve in water can be classified as
electrolytes or nonelectrolytes:
– Electrolytes dissolve in water to form solutions
which conduct electricity, because they dissociate
to form mobile, solvated cations and anions:
NaCl(s) ⎯H⎯
⎯
2O
→ Na + (aq) + Cl - (aq)
– Nonelectrolytes do not conduct electricity when
dissolved in water, because they are molecules
with don’t dissociate into ions (water itself is a
nonelectrolyte):
C12 H 22 O11 (s) ⎯H⎯
⎯
2O
→ C12 H 22 O11 (aq)

46
MOV: Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Chapter 4 Notes

Electrolytes in Aqueous Solution

47
Figure 4.11

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

• Electrolytes are divided into two categories:
– Strong electrolytes are dissociated to a very large
extent (70-100%); that is, virtually all of the units
of the original substance are separated into ions.
– Weak electrolytes are dissociated to a very small
extent; that is, only a small percentage of the
substance is dissociated into ions at any one time.
• Dissociation of weak electrolytes are often written
using back-and-forth double arrows,

h
indicating that a dynamic equilibrium is taking
place, in which there is a forward and a backward
direction to the process.
48
MOV: Strong and Weak Electrolytes
Chapter 4 Notes

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

• For strong electrolytes, the equilibrium goes almost
completely to the right, to the dissociated species.

• For weak electrolytes, the equilibrium lies to the left,

with the undissociated species.

• Since most of the particles in a weak electrolyte

solution are not ionized, weak electrolytes conduct
electricity in solution only weakly.
• Equilibrium processes are important in many areas
of chemistry, and will be discussed in excruciating
detail later.
49

Strong and Weak Electrolytes

50
Figure 4.13
Chapter 4 Notes

Soluble and Insoluble

• In some cases, the electrostatic forces in ionic
compounds are too great to be overcome by water,
and the substance is insoluble in water.
• This is greatly oversimplified, though; in reality,
solubility is a continuum, and even “insoluble”
substances dissolve in water to some slight extent.
– Solubility of NaCl in H2O at 25ºC = 357 g/L
– Solubility of AgNO3 in H2O at 25ºC = 216 g/L
– Solubility of AgCl in H2O at 25ºC = 0.0019 g/L

51
MOV: Dissolution of NaCl

Acids as Electrolytes
• Most molecular compounds are nonelectrolytes,
except for the acids.
• Acids of the general formula HA ionize into H+ ions
and A- ions when they dissolve in water:
HA(g, l) ⎯H⎯
⎯
2O
→ H + (aq) + A - (aq)
– A strong acid such as HCl ionizes completely.
Every molecule of HCl splits up into H+ and Cl-:
HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
– A weak acid such as HC2H3O2 does not ionize
completely. Only a small percentage of the
molecules split up into H+ and C2H3O2-:
HC2H3O2(g) h H+(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)
52
Chapter 4 Notes

Classifying Electrolytes
• Strong Electrolytes:
– Soluble ionic compounds.
– Strong acids: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO4, H2SO4
memorize!

• Weak Electrolytes:
– All other acids are weak acids/weak electrolytes:
HF, HC2H3O2, HNO2, H2SO3, etc.

• Nonelectrolytes:
– Molecular compounds (except for acids): water,
sugar, most organic compounds, etc.
53

Examples: Dissociation of Ionic Compounds

17. Write the equation for the dissociation in water of
Na2S, HBr, AlCl3, and Pb(NO3)2.

54
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Dissociation of Ionic Compounds

18. How many moles of each ion are in 1 mol of
CaCl2?

55

Examples: Dissociation of Ionic Compounds

19. How many moles of each ion are in 23.4 g of
Na2S?

Answer: 0.600 mol Na+, 0.300 mol S2- 56

Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Dissociation of Ionic Compounds

20. What is the molar concentration of iron(III) ions
and bromide ions in a 0.225 M aqueous solution of
iron(III) bromide, assuming complete dissociation?
What is the total molar concentration of ions?

Answer: 0.225 M Fe3+, 0.675 M Br-, 0.900 M ions 57

Examples: Classifying Electrolytes

21. Classify the following compounds as strong
electrolytes, weak electrolytes, or nonelectrolytes.
a. HCl
b. SCl2
c. AgNO3
d. H2O
e. CH3CH2OH
f. Na2SO4
g. HNO2
h. HNO3
58
Chapter 4 Notes

Precipitation
Reactions

59

Precipitation Reactions
• A precipitation reaction occurs when two ionic
compounds react to produce a precipitate, an
insoluble substance which falls out of the solution.
• These reactions are also known as double-
displacement or metathesis reactions, because the
cations and anions of the reactants “change partners”
in the products:
AB + CD → AD + CB
• These reactions occur when the solute-solute
attractions between the ions in the precipitate are
stronger than the solvent-solute attractions.
• The other ions stay in solution as spectator ions.

60
Chapter 4 Notes

Precipitation Reactions
• If we mix solutions of NaNO3 and KI, all we get is a
mixture of dissolved ions; no reaction takes place
because none of the products are insoluble in water:
NaCl(aq) + KI(aq) → KCl(aq) + NaI(aq): NR

61
Figure 4.15

Precipitation Reactions
• On the other hand, if we mix Pb(NO3)2 and KI, we
get a solid product of PbI2:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

62
Figure 4.14
Chapter 4 Notes

Predicting Precipitation Reactions

AB(aq) + CD(aq) → AD(aq) + CB(s)
• In order to predict whether a precipitation reaction
occurs, we use the solubility rules on the next slides
to determine whether any of the potential products
of the reaction are insoluble.
– If one of the products of the reaction is insoluble
(or is a weak electrolyte, gas, or nonelectrolyte),
the reaction occurs, and must be balanced
appropriately.
– If no insoluble product (or weak electrolyte, gas,
or nonelectrolyte) form, then no reaction (NR)
takes place, and all of the ions remain in solution
as spectator ions.
63
MOV: Precipitation Reactions

Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds in Water

64
Chapter 4 Notes

Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds in Water

Soluble Ionic Compounds
1. All common compounds of the Group 1A ions (Li+,
Na+, K+, etc.) and the ammonium ion (NH4+) are
soluble.

2. All common nitrates (NO3-), acetates (C2H3O2-), and

most perchlorates (ClO4-) are soluble.

3. All common chlorides (Cl-), bromides (Br-), and

iodides (I-) are soluble, except those of Ag+, Pb2+,
and Hg22+.

4. All common sulfates (SO42-) are soluble, except

those of Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, and Ag+.
memorize! 65

Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds in Water

Insoluble Ionic Compounds
5. All metal hydroxides (OH-) are insoluble, except
those of Group 1A, NH4+, which are soluble, and
Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+, which are slightly soluble.

6. All sulfides (S2-) are insoluble, except those of

Group 1A, NH4+, Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+.

7. All carbonates (CO32-) and phosphates (PO43-) are

insoluble, except those of Group 1A and NH4+.

memorize! 66
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Predicting Solubility

22. Predict the solubility in water of each of the
following compounds. (sim. to Ex. 4.9)
a. CaCO3 g. Hg2Cl2

b. Mg(OH)2 h. NH4C2H3O2

c. Na2S i. AgC2H3O2

d. PbSO4 j. Pb(NO3)2

e. (NH4)3PO4 k. K2CO3

f. HgCl2 l. AgCl

67

Representing Aqueous Reactions

• Aqueous reactions involving ionic compounds can
be represented by three types of equations:
– Molecular equation — formulas are written as if
they were intact molecules (e.g., NaCl)
– Complete ionic equation — soluble strong
electrolytes (soluble ionic compounds and strong
acids) are written as ions (e.g., Na+, Cl-)
• Insoluble precipitates, weak electrolytes, and
molecules are left intact.
• Ions that are not involved in the actual
chemical change are called spectator ions.
– Net ionic equation — shows only the ions which
undergo a change, eliminating the spectator ions.
68
Chapter 4 Notes

Molecular, Ionic, and Net Ionic Equations

Molecular equation:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

Ionic equation: (phase labels omitted for clarity)

Pb2+ + 2NO3- + 2K+ + 2I- → 2K+ + 2NO3- + PbI2(s)

Spectator ions: K+ and NO3-

Net ionic equation:

Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) → PbI2(s)
69

Examples: Molec., Ionic, and Net Ionic Eqns.

23. Write ionic and net ionic equations for the following
reactions.

2AgNO3(aq) + Na2CrO4(aq) → Ag2CrO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

H2SO4(aq) + MgCO3(s) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

70
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Predicting Precipitation Reactions

24. Predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur
when aqueous solutions of CaCl2 and Na2CO3 are
mixed. Write the net ionic equation.

71

Examples: Predicting Precipitation Reactions

25. Predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur
when aqueous solutions of sodium nitrate and
lithium sulfate are mixed. Write the net ionic
equation.

72
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Predicting Precipitation Reactions

26. How might you use a precipitation reaction to
prepare a sample of CuCO3? Write the net ionic
equation.

73

Examples: Predicting Precipitation Reactions

27. Predict whether a reaction occurs when each of the
following pairs of solutions are mixed. If a
reaction does occur, write balanced molecular,
ionic, and net ionic equations, and identify the
spectator ions. (sim. to Pr 4.6)
a. Silver nitrate (aq) and sodium chloride (aq) [movie]
b. Potassium nitrate and ammonium chloride
c. Pb(NO3)2 and Fe2(SO4)3
d. Iron(III) chloride (aq) and cesium phosphate (aq)
e. Sodium phosphate and calcium chloride
f. Ca(OH)2 and Na2SO4
74
Chapter 4 Notes

Acids, Bases,
and
Neutralization
Reactions
75

Acids and Bases

• The concept of acidity and basicity has existed for a
long time, and some compounds have long been
designated as acids or bases:
– Acids turn blue litmus red; their aqueous
solutions have a tart taste.
– Bases turn red litmus blue; their aqueous
solutions have a bitter taste and a “soapy” feel.
• The level of acidity is measured on a logarithmic
scale called the pH scale (pH = -log[H+]):
– pH < 7 is acidic
– pH > 7 is basic
– pH = 7 is neutral
76
Chapter 4 Notes

The Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases

• In the Arrhenius definition (Svante Arrhenius,
1887) of acids and bases:
– An acid is a substance that produces H+ ions
(protons) when dissolved in water.
– A base is a substance that produces OH- ions
when dissolved in water.

HA(aq) → H+(aq) + A-(aq)

an acid

MOH(aq) → M+(aq) + OH-(aq)

a base

77

Acids
• Acids in their pure form (i.e., not mixed with water)
are molecular compounds, but when they are
dissolved in water, they dissociate into ions:
HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

• Polyprotic acids contain more than one acidic

proton. For instance, sulfuric acid is diprotic:
H2SO4(aq) → H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)
HSO4-(aq) H H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

78
Chapter 4 Notes

The Hydronium Ion

• An “H+” cation is too reactive to exist freely in an
aqueous solution. The “H+” is always attached to
one (or more) water molecules as a hydronium ion,
H3O+ [movie].
• The dissociation reaction for HCl
HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
is more correctly represented by the reaction:
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

79

Bases
• Under the Arrhenius definition, sodium hydroxide is
a base because it produces hydroxide ions in water:
NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
• Hydroxide salts in their pure form are ionic solids,
but when they are dissolved in water, the cation and
anion dissociate from each other, releasing
hydroxide into the solution:
KOH(s) → K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ba(OH)2(s) → Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

80
Chapter 4 Notes

Strong Acids and Weak Acids

• Acids that dissociate to a large extent are strong
electrolytes, and are therefore called strong acids.
There are six major strong acids:
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Sulfuric acid, H2SO4
Hydrobromic acid, HBr Nitric acid, HNO3
Hydriodic acid, HI Perchloric acid, HClO4
memorize!
• Acids that dissociate to only a small extent are weak
electrolytes, and are therefore called weak acids.
Examples of weak acids include:
Hydrofluoric acid, HF
Acetic acid, HC2H3O2 (or CH3CO2H)
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
etc.
81
MOV: Introduction to Aqueous Acids

Strong Bases and Weak Bases

• Bases can also be either strong or weak.
• Most metal hydroxides are strong bases, which are
virtually completely dissociated in water. Some
examples include:
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Potassium hydroxide, KOH
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
Barium hydroxide, Ba(OH)2
• Weak bases are only partially dissociated. Weak
bases do not contain OH- ions, but produce them in
an equilibrium reaction with water:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) H NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)
82
MOV: Introduction to Aqueous Bases
Chapter 4 Notes

Neutralization Reactions
• Acid-base reactions or neutralization reactions
occur when an acid and base react to form water, a
weak electrolyte, or a gas. (These reactions are also
a form of double-displacement reaction.)
HA(aq) + MOH(aq) → MA(aq) + H2O(l)
acid base a salt water
• For a strong acid and base, this can be written as the
ionic equation:
H+ + A- + M+ + OH- → M+ + A- + H2O(l)
• Canceling the spectator ions gives the net ionic
equation:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
{ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l) }
83

Examples: Neutralization Reactions

28. Write the molecular equation, complete ionic
equation, and net ionic equation for the following
neutralization reactions:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) →

HI(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) →

84
Chapter 4 Notes

Neutralization Reactions
• We will see the same net ionic equation for the
reaction of any strong acid with any strong base.
• Neutralization reactions are essentially a type of
double-displacement (metathesis) reaction where
one of the products is water.
• When one of the species is a weak acid or base, one
of the products is still water, but the net ionic
equation will be slightly different, since weak acids
and bases do not dissociate:
HF(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaF(aq) + H2O(l)
NIE: HF + OH- → F- + H2O(l)

85

Acid-Base Titrations
• A titration is a procedure for determining the
concentration of a solution:
– A standard solution of known concentration is
reacted with a solution of unknown concentration.
– By measuring the volume of standard solution
that reacts with a known volume of the unknown
solution, the concentration can be calculated from
the reaction stoichiometry.
• A common example of this process is an acid-base
titration, in which an acid or base of unknown
concentration reacts with a base or acid of known
concentration:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
86
MOV: Acid-Base Titration
Chapter 4 Notes

Acid-Base Titrations
base of known
concentration in
a buret

acid of unknown
concentration

87
p. 163

Acid-Base Titrations
• In the previous figure, OH- from the buret is added
to the acid of unknown concentration in the flask
until the equivalence point is reached, when the
number of moles of OH- added equals the number of
moles of H+ that were originally present.

mol 1 mol HCl mol

mol = ×L M=
L 1 mol NaOH L

Figure 4.18. The equivalence point is

usually signaled by the color change which
occurs in an acid-base indicator, such as
phenolphthalein, which is colorless in an
acidic solution but pink in a basic solution. 88
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Acid-Base Titrations

29. A 25.0 mL sample of vinegar (dilute acetic acid,
HC2H3O2) is titrated and found to react with 94.7
mL of 0.200 M NaOH. What is the molarity of the
acetic acid solution? (sim. to Ex. 4.14)
HC2H3O2(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l)

Answer: 0.758 M HC2H3O2 89

Neutralization Reactions that Produce Gases

• Some acid-base reactions result in the formation of
gases, either directly or in the decomposition of an
unstable intermediate. This removes ions from the
solution, driving the reaction to occur.
• Carbonic acid, H2CO3, is unstable, and falls apart to
give water and CO2(g).
2HCl(aq) + K2CO3(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

2HCl(aq) + K2CO3(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

• Other gases that can be produced in neutralization
reactions include H2S(g), SO2(g) (from the
decomposition of H2SO3), HCN(g), and NH3(g)
(from the dissociation of NH4OH).
90
Chapter 4 Notes

Neutralization Reactions that Produce Gases

91

Neutralization Reactions that Produce

Weak Electrolytes
• Neutralization reactions can also result in the
formation of weak electrolytes, which also do not
dissociate. Usually, these will be weak acids:
HCl(aq) + NaF(aq) → HF(aq) + NaCl(aq)

92
Chapter 4 Notes

Double-Displacement Reactions
• Both precipitation and acid-base reactions are
examples of double-displacement or metathesis
reactions. In these reactions, the cations and anions
in two ionic compounds “change partners”:
AB + CD → AD + CB
• In order for the reaction to occur, one of four things
must occur, otherwise, there is no reaction (NR).
1. In precipitation reactions, an insoluble ionic
compound forms (solubility rules).
2. In acid-base (neutralization) reactions, an acid and
a base form a salt and water, a gas, or a weak
electrolyte.
93

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

• The Arrhenius definition of acids and bases applies
only to aqueous solutions, but acid-base reactions
also take place in other solvents; many species can
also act as bases without containing OH- ions. An
extended definition was developed independently in
1923 by Johannes Brønsted and Thomas Lowry.
• The Brønsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases
is based on proton (H+) transfer:
– An Brønsted acid is a proton (H+) donor.
– A Brønsted base is a proton (H+) acceptor.
– An acid-base (neutralization) reaction is a proton
transfer process.
• Any Arrhenius acid or base is also a Brønsted acid
or base (but not vice versa).
94
Chapter 4 Notes

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
proton proton
donor acceptor
Brønsted Brønsted
acid base

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) H NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)

proton proton
acceptor donor
Brønsted Brønsted
base acid

95

Lewis Acids and Bases

• The acid-base concept was extended even further by
a definition developed by G. N. Lewis in 1923.
• The Lewis definition of acids and bases is based on
electron-pair bonding:
– A Lewis base is an electron-pair donor.
– A Lewis acid is an electron-pair acceptor.
– An acid-base reaction is the donation and
acceptance of an electron pair to form a
covalent bond.
• The Lewis definition allows many substances which
do not contain “H+” to be treated as acids.
• Any Brønsted acid or base is also a Lewis acid or
base (but not necessarily vice versa).
96
Chapter 4 Notes

Lewis Acids and Bases

• The key feature of Lewis base is a lone pair of
electrons to donate; the key feature of a Lewis acid
is a vacant orbital, or the ability to form one, to
accept that lone pair and form a new covalent bond.
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
e--pair e--pair
acceptor donor
MOV: Lewis Acid-Base Theory
Lewis Lewis
acid base

F
F H
B B N
N
H H F H
F F H F H 97

Examples: Predicting Neutralization Rxns

30. Predict whether a reaction occurs when each of the
following pairs of solutions are mixed. If a reaction
does occur, write balanced molecular, ionic, and net
ionic equations, and identify the spectator ions.
a. HCl and calcium carbonate [movie]

b. Hydrobromic acid and barium hydroxide

c. Nitric acid and sodium fluoride

d. Sulfuric acid and sodium cyanide

e. Sodium bicarbonate and acetic acid

f. CdS(aq) + HCl
98
Chapter 4 Notes

Oxidation-Reduction
(Redox)
Reactions
99

Oxidation and Reduction

• Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions, are
another major class of chemical reactions.
– Historically, “oxidation” meant the combination
of an element with oxygen, as in the rusting of
iron:
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
– “Reduction” meant the removal of oxygen from
an oxide, as in the heating of iron ore with
charcoal in a blast furnace to form iron metal:
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
• Now, the terms “oxidation” and “reduction” have
more specific meanings:
100
Chapter 4 Notes

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a
process in which electrons are transferred from one
substance to another.
– Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
– Reduction is the gain of electrons.
Oxidation: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
half-reactions
Reduction: Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
oxidation

Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) ⎯⎯→ Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)

reduction
101
MOV: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

• The oxidizing agent is the substance that causes
oxidation to occur by accepting electrons. The
oxidizing agent itself becomes reduced.
• The reducing agent is the substance that causes
reduction to occur by losing electrons. The reducing
agent itself becomes oxidized.
• In general, metals tend to act as reducing agents
(lose electrons), and nonmetals tend to act as
oxidizing agents (gain electrons).
oxidation

Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) ⎯⎯→ Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)

reduction
102
MOV: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 2
Chapter 4 Notes

Oxidation Numbers
• In the following reaction, it is easy to see that a
redox reaction is taking place, because the charges
are explicitly written out:
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)
• But what about these reactions?
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O
• We can keep track of whether a reaction is a redox
reaction, and what specifically is being oxidized or
reduced, by using oxidation numbers (aka
oxidation state). Note that oxidation number is not
the same thing as charge!!!!!
103

Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

These rules are hierarchical. If any two rules
conflict, follow the rule that is higher on the list.
1. The oxidation number of an atom in its elemental
state is zero.
Na H2 Br2 S Ne

0 0 0 0 0

2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the

same as its charge.
Na+ Ca2+ Al3+ Cl- O2- N3-

+1 +2 +3 -1 -2 -3
104
Chapter 4 Notes

Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

3. The sum of the oxidation numbers is 0 for a neutral
compound and is equal to the net charge for a
polyatomic ion.
H2SO4 ClO4- ClO2- NH4+
+1 ? -2 ? -2 ? -2 ? +1

4. In their compounds, metals have positive oxidation

numbers:
a. Group 1A metals always have oxidation numbers
of +1.
b. Group 2A metals always have oxidation numbers
of +2.
105

Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

5. In their compounds, nonmetals are assigned
oxidation states according to the table below.
Entries at the top of the table take precedence over
entries at the bottom of the table.
a. Fluorine -1
b. Hydrogen +1 (-1 when bonded with a metal)
NaH CaH2 HCl H2S

+1 -1 +2 -1 +1 -1 +1 -2
c. Oxygen -2 (-1 in peroxides, O22-)
H2O OH- H2O2
+1 -2 -2 +1 +1 ? 106
Chapter 4 Notes

Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

d. Group 7A -1 (except in compounds with O)
NaCl Cl2O HOBr

+1 ? ? -2 +1 -2 ?

e. Group 6A -2 (except in compounds with O)

Na2S SO2 SO42-

+1 ? ? -2 ? -2

f. Group 5A -3 (except in compounds with O)

NH3 NO2 NO3-
? +1 ? -2 ? -2 107

Examples: Assigning Oxidation Numbers

31. Determine the oxidation number of each element in
the following species. (sim. to Ex. 4.16)
a. Zinc chloride
b. Sulfur trioxide
c. Sulfite ion
d. Chlorite ion
e. Nitric acid
f. S2O32-
g. Sodium azide (NaN3)
h. Potassium dichromate
108
Chapter 4 Notes

Identifying Redox Reactions

• Another way to define a redox reaction is one in
which the oxidation numbers of species change:
– oxidation is an increase in oxidation number.
– reduction is a decrease in oxidation number.
• Any reaction in which oxidation numbers change is
a redox reaction. If no oxidation numbers change,
the reaction is not a redox reaction.

S + O2 → SO2
0 0 +4 -2
S: 0 → +4 oxidized
O: 0 → -2 reduced
109

Examples: Identifying Redox Reactions

32. Identify the substance oxidized, the substance reduced,
the oxidizing agent, and the reducing agent in each of
the following reactions. (sim. to Ex. 4.17)

a. 2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)

b. PbO(s) + CO(g) → Pb(s) + CO2(g)

c. H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

d. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

e. 2KCl + MnO2 + 2H2SO4 → K2SO4 + MnSO4 + Cl2 + 2H2O

f. Na2SO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 2NaNO3(aq) + PbSO4(s)

110
Chapter 4 Notes

Single-Displacement Reactions; Activity Series

• A particular kind of redox reaction, called a single-
displacement reaction occurs when an uncharged
metal (A0) “displaces” a charged metal (B+) in an
ionic compound (B+C-):
A0 + B+C- → A+C- + B0
– The reacting metal (A0) becomes charged (A+),
forming a new ionic compound (A+C-), and the
displaced metal (B+) becomes uncharged (B0):
• This reaction only occurs when the metal A0 is a
more active (i.e., higher on the activity series) metal
than the metal cation B+. The products of the
reaction are written using ionic charge rules.

111

A Single-Displacement Reaction

Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)

MOV: Formation of Silver Crystals 112
Chapter 4 Notes

THE ACTIVITY SERIES OF THE METALS

Behavior toward H+
Most active Li
Ç K
⏐ Ba
⏐ Sr
⏐ Ca
⏐ Na Å displace H+ from water
⏐ Mg
⏐ Al
Strength Mn
as a Zn
reducing Cr
agent Fe
⏐ Cd ÅÅ displace H+ from steam
⏐ Co
⏐ Ni
⏐ Sn
⏐ Pb ÅÅÅ displace H+ from acid
⏐ H2 —————————
⏐ Cu Æ do not displace H+
⏐ Ag
⏐ Pt
⏐ Hg 113
Least active Au

Examples: Single-Displacement Reactions

33. Predict whether the following reactions will occur.
a. Hg2+(aq) + Zn(s) → Hg(l) + Zn2+(aq)

b. 2H+(aq) + 2Ag(s) → H2(g) + 2Ag+(aq)

c. CaCl2(aq) + Mg(s) → Ca(s) + MgCl2(aq)

d. Ca(s) + MgCl2(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + Mg(s)

e. Zn(s) + SnCl2(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + Sn(s) [movie]

114
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Single-Displacement Reactions

34. Predict the products (if any) of the following reactions.
a. Al(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) →

b. Ni(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq) →

c. Al(s) + CuCl2(aq) →

d. AlCl3(aq) + Cu(s) →

115

Examples: Single-Displacement Reactions

35. Predict the products (if any) of the following reactions.
a. Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) →

b. Al(s) + H2O(g) →

c. K(s) + H2O(l) →

d. Au(s) + H2O(l) →

116
Chapter 4 Notes

Combustion Reactions
• Combustion reactions are a type of redox reaction
in which a substance reacts with molecular oxygen
(O2) to form one or more oxygen-containing
products. These reactions are usually accompanied
by the release of large amounts of heat and light
(burning).
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) [movie]
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(s) [or SO3(g)]
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g) [movie]
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) [burning of coal]
117

Combustion Reactions
• The primary type of combustion reaction is the
combustion of hydrocarbons to produce carbon
dioxide and water (as well as heat energy, which can
be converted to other forms of energy):
Hydrocarbon + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
(C,H,O)

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

methane

C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) → 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
~ gasoline

C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

ethanol
118
Chapter 4 Notes

Combustion Reactions
• In a limited oxygen supply, carbon monoxide or
elemental carbon may form instead; hot elemental
carbon glows with an orange color, producing the
colors associated with burning wood or candles.
• The metabolism of glucose (C6H12O6) in the body is
similar to combustion reactions:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
In living cells the process occurs slowly, in a
complex series of steps that release energy in a
controlled way.

119

Other Applications of Redox Reactions

• Bleaching uses redox reactions to decolorize or lighten
colored materials (hair, clothes, paper, etc.)
• Batteries use spontaneous redox reactions which occur
in separated compartments; the electrons that move
between the oxidation compartment (anode) and the
reduction compartment (cathode) can be used to deliver
electrical energy .
• Metallurgy is the processes involved in extracting and
purifying metals from their ores. Roasting ores with
carbon (coke) carries away oxygen in the form of CO or
CO2, yielding the pure metal:
ZnO(s) + C(s) → Zn(s) + CO(g)
• Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal by oxidation,
as in the rusting of iron in moist air.
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + H2O → 2Fe2O3•H2O(s) 120
Chapter 4 Notes

Synthesis and
Decomposition
Reactions
121

Synthesis Reactions
• In a synthesis or combination reaction, two or
more reactants combine to form one product.
A + B → C

Combination Reactions that Are Redox Reactions

1. Metal + nonmetal → ionic compound
Zn(s) + S(s) → ZnS(s)
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s)

122
Chapter 4 Notes

Synthesis Reactions
Combination Reactions that Are Redox Reactions
2. Nonmetal + nonmetal → molecular compound
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
2S(s) + 3O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

3. Compound + element → molecular compound

2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)
PCl3(l) + Cl2(g) → PCl5(s)

123

Synthesis Reactions
Combination Reactions that Are Not Redox Rxns
1. Metal oxide + nonmetal oxide → ionic compound
w/polyatomic ion
Li2O(s) + CO2(g) → Li2CO3(s)

2. Metal oxide + water → metal hydroxides (bases)

Metal oxides are also known as basic anhydrides.
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s)
Na2O(s) + H2O → 2NaOH(aq)
Al2O3(s) + 3H2O → 2Al(OH)3(aq)

124
Chapter 4 Notes

Synthesis Reactions
Combination Reactions that Are Not Redox Rxns
3. Nonmetal oxide + water → acid
Add the elements of water into the nonmetal oxide
formula and reduce the subscripts to lowest terms.
For phosphorus oxides, add three molecules of
water.
Nonmetal oxides are also known as acidic
anhydrides.
CO2(g) + H2O → H2CO3(aq)
N2O5(g) + H2O → 2HNO3(aq)
P2O5(s) + 3H2O → 2H3PO4(aq)

125

Decomposition Reactions
• In a decomposition reaction, one reactant breaks
down to form two or more products.
C → A + B
Thermal Decomposition
1. Ionic compound with oxoanion →
metal oxide + gaseous nonmetal oxide
Δ
CaCO3 (s) ⎯⎯→ CaO(s) + CO 2 (g)
2. Many metal oxides, chlorates, and perchlorates
release O2 when heated.
Δ
2KClO3 (s) ⎯⎯→ 2KCl(s) + 3O 2 (g)
Δ
2NaNO 3 (s) ⎯⎯→ 2NaNO 2 (s) + O 2 (g) 126
Chapter 4 Notes

Decomposition Reactions
Electrolytic Decomposition — occurs when
compounds absorb electrical energy and undergo
electrolysis.
1. Decomposition of water.
2H 2O(l) ⎯electricit
⎯⎯ ⎯y → 2H 2 (g) + O2 (g)

2. Molten ionic compounds decompose into their

elements.
MgCl2 (l) ⎯electricit
⎯⎯ ⎯y → Mg(l) + Cl2 (g)
2NaCl(l) ⎯electricit
⎯⎯ ⎯y → 2Na(l) + Cl2 (g)

127

Decomposition Reactions
Decomposition of Binary Compounds — may occur
by thermal decomposition, electrolysis, or other
conditions.
1. Binary compound → element + element
2NI 3 (s) ⎯tickle
⎯ ⎯→ N 2 (g) + 3I 2 (g) ( + bang! )

• The decomposition of binary compounds are the

only decomposition reactions for which you’ll be
asked to predict the products. Be able to recognize
and balance the other types of decompositions.

128
Chapter 4 Notes

Examples: Predicting Chemical Reactions

36. Complete the following reactions and classify them
as synthesis, decomposition, single-displacement,
acid-base, precipitation, or combustion reactions.
a. Magnesium + nitrogen →

b. H2SO4(aq) + NaF(aq) →

c. Na2S(aq) + HCl(aq) →

d. Hydrogen peroxide(l) →

e. (NH4)2SO4(aq) + K3PO4(aq) →

f. Cadmium + lead(II) nitrate →

129

The End
or, more accurately,

Just the Beginning!

130