19

Global Migration
Stephen Castles

Introduction: AWorld of Diversity

March 2006--hundreds of forign
Something unprecedented happened in Dubai in world's tallest building, went on
srike
Burj Dubai, the
contract workers building the dormitories and dangerous conditions.
low wages, squalid
and demonstrated against often simply refused to pay wages. Dubai
was that employers where the migrant workforce-mainly
Their main grievance United Arab Emirates, More
is one of the oil-rich Bangladesh--far outnumbers the local population. of
from India, Pakistan and Gulf state, Saudi Arabia, is a migrant. Lack
in the largest deportations have forced' migrant
than one in four workers and fear of
of unions condiions. Women migrants,
worker rights, prohibition exploitative
work roles and
workers to accept menial
helpers in local households, are especially vulnerable.
who often work as domestic that migrant workers are no tonger wiling to accept
The Dubai strikes were a sign are central to a modern economy.
labour rights
this situation, and that that most migrants are low-skiled. Indià is a key
think
But it would be wrong to especially in the Gulf, and highly-skilled
low-skilled migration,
example for both
developed economies (Khadria 2008). Migrant skills have be
migration to the most
example, over 40 per çent of the employed mi
come crucial in rich countries, for Sweden and'Denmark from 1995 to
Belgium, Luxembourg,
orants who arrived in
2005 had tertiary education, while in
France the hgure was 35 per cent. Migrants
(OECD 2007: 6)-8).Global
ofen have higher skill profiles than local-born workers
competition for human capital is hoting up. In older industrial countries, the com-
bination of economic growth and demographic decline fuels demand, while new
industrial areas like South Korea and even China are increasingly hungry for skills.
Many observers see migration as a force for economic growth as well as a way
for migrants to improve their livelihoods (UNDP 2009). But migration is not iust
an economic issue -it changes communities and societies ín complex ways. Thë so
called 'classical immigration countries like the USA, Canada and Australia built their
 Global Migration
tor
nations through immigratton, but were still largely unprepared
populations and the
cultural diversity resulting from the globalization of migration since
the increased immigration rules, together with the increasing ease
1960s. The abolition of racist over the world.
communications have led to growth of inflows from all
of travel and it particularly hard to cope with the un
have found
Buropean immigration countries societies.
expected emergence of multiculturaland conflicts,such as the riots in France in 200
strains
The result has often been come to the fore since the
9/11 attacks in
have also
and 2007. Security
concerns
European countries linked to the infuence of
attacks in several today's global
the USA, with bomb of immigrant youth. But
proportion
radical Islamism among a small ethnically homogeneous populations are a
cosmopolitan and national identities and
cities are increasingly consequences for both
important
thing of the past. This has
international relations (IR).

Globalization and Migration

of globalization. As less-developed coun
International migration is an integral part
are drawn into global
economic linkages,
Asia and Latin America
tries in Africa, unleashed. Neoliberal forms of in
transformation are
powerful processes of social traditional ways of working and living
integration undermine
ternational economic displaces people from the land.
Increased agricultural productivity
(Stiglitz 2002). people to seek new livelihoods and places to
Environmental change compels many housing and
People move to the cities, but there are not enough jobs there, and
live.
Moreover, weak states and impoverishment lead
social conditionsare often very bad. violations of human rights.
vioience and
to lack of human security, often resulting in
All these factors encourage.emigration.
social iransformation in the OECD
At the same time, globalization leads to
countries. Industrial re
(Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development)workers. The new services
structuring means deskilling and early retirement for many
declining fertility, rela
industries need very different types of labour. But, due to
these young people
tively few young nationals enter the labour market. Moreover, low-skill ed work.
willing to do
have good educational opportunities and are not Developed
Population ageing leads to increased dependency rates and care needs.
need mi
countries have high demand for both high and low-skilled workers, and
grants-whether legal or not.
Globalization also creates the cultural and technical conditions for mobility. Elec
tronic communications provide knowledge of migration routes and work opportuni
ties. Long-distance travel has become cheaper and more accessible. Once migratorY
Aows are established, they generate 'migration networks'--previous migrants help
:
members of their families or communities with information on work, accommoda
tion and official Yules. Facilitating migration has become a major international busi
ness, /ncluding travelagents, bankers, lawyers and recruiters. The 'migration industry
also has an illegal side-smuggling and raffcking--which governments yflows of.
the greater the
strict. Yet, the more the g0vernments try to control borders,
on control na-
Goyernments remain focçsed
undocumented migrantsmiørants follow the transnational logic of globalized lab0ur
seem to be.
1onal models, while
markets (Castles 2004a).

Migration Trends
(UN
United Nations Department of Economicand Social Affairs
According to the (defined as people living outside
internation al migrants
DESA), the world total of grew from about 100million in 1960 to
at least a year) oftHe
their country of birth for sounds a lot, but is just 3 per cent
2005). This
191 million in 2005 (UNDESA that most people remajn in their
realize
world's 6 billion people. I: is important todata on trends in international migration
presents UN
countries of birth. Table 19.1 regions as well.as globally. But since
growth in all
since 1960, showing considerable in the number of migrants in Asia, Africa and
increase
1990, there has been little Europe and North America, refiecting an
has been in
Latin America--the big growth South (less developed regions) to the North
the Global
increase in migration from
(more developed regions). revealed even more clearly by
South-North migration is
The importance of UN), which divides international
migrants into
provided by the
Figure 19.1 (also number of migrants (62 million) has moved
largest
four geographical categories. The of the South to the developed countries of the global
from the less-developed countries highBy-skilled specialists (doctors,
inciude
North. These migrants are very diverse and weil as low-skilled workers, refugees and
experts, engineers and managers), as
IT

1960-2005 (in millions)

Table 19.| Number of International Migrants by Region:
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005
Region
76 81 99 155 1,77 191
World
More developed regions 32 38 48 82 105 115:
43 43 S2 73 72
Less developed regions :75
9 0 14 16. 17
Africa 17
29 28 32 50 SO
Asia 53
"14 19 22 49
Europe S8 64
Caribbean 6 6
Latin America & 6 7
Northern America 13 13 18 28 40 49
Oceania 2 3 4 S
Source: UNDESA 2005.
 275
Global Migration

MIGRANT STOCK IS ALMOST EQUALLY

DIVIDED INTO THREE TYPES

62311lin MOB

COLL
61 million
South: South HAN
Únitcd Nations Iorulstlon Dryiyon, 2007

Figure 19.1 International Migration Between South and North, 2005 &
K.M

family members. The second largest group (61 million) has moved from one south
ern counry to another. The third group (53 million) consists of migrants who have &
moved between rich Northern countries. The smallest category is of people who have COL
gone fromn North to South (14 million).
However, a focus on international migration can give a deceptive picture. Many
people in p0orer areas move within their own countries. Internal migration attracts HIN
far less political attention, but its volurne in pqpuiation giants like China, India,
Indonesia, Braziland Nigeria is far greater than that of international movements. The
social and cultural consequences can be equaily important. In China the 'ioating CEN
population' of people moing from the agricultural centraland westerh provinces to
the new industrial areas of the east coast numbers at least 100 million, and many of
them experience legal di_advantage and economic marginalization, very like interna XER
tional migrants elsewhere.
In the past, most discussion of migration has focused either on economically
motivated movements or on forced migrationi.e., flows of refugees or internally
di_placed people seeking protection from persecution or violence. Recently, migration PRA
to escape the effects of climate change has been added to the category of forced mi
gration (Wood 2001). Moreover, the emphasis has been on long-term or permanent
migration and itsconsequences for both origin and destination societies. However,re
cent improvements in transport and communications have made it possible for people
to move for a wider range of reasons, and often to move temporarily and repeatedly
in what is often called 'circular migration'. Indeed, some analysts now prefer to use
the term mobility' to stress the lexible nature of emerging types of movementS TO
 purposes such as:

Education: Students move internationally, especially for graduate studies,

and some of them stay 'on in the
or permanently.
destination country to work for a period
Marriage: Demographic rends such as low fertility, ageing
gender imbalances lead to high levels of populations and
migration (especially of women) for
marriage. This trend has hecome very import©nt in Japan, South
Taiwan, and is increasingly affecting China and India too. Often it Korea and
is farmers
or poorer men who seek their brides abroad, usually
kers. The social and cultural consequences of marriagethrough agents,or bro
understood, but may be migration are poorly
considerable.
Lifestyle: Some people, especially. younger people of middle-class background,
nove in search of new experiences and different lifestyles. Such mobility is
mainly temporary, but it can have significant impacts on destination areas.
Retirement: Older people, often from affuent backgrounds, move upon ceas
& ing employment in search of better climates, lower living costs and more at
tractive lifestyles. Examples include British people moving to Spain or Turkey.
French people buying property in Morocco,North Americans moving to Latin
America or the Caribbean, and Japanese going to the Philippines, Australia or
New Zealand.

India and Migratian

Around 100 millionIndians areestimated to have migrated internally, often from rural
E areas to the cities. Many are circular migrants' who return home at harvest time,
or
estimated
for family and religious purposes. International migration is smaller-an
Indians (NRIS)
20-25 million people worldwideofficially classified as non-resident
'Indian diaspora' (Khadria 2008?
or persons of Indian origin (PIOs) who form the about 1,62,000 are clas
E: There are some 6 million immigrants in India, of whom
only
absolute terms, they are fairly
sifed as refugees. Although these numbers are large in Immigrants
billion in 2005.
modest incomparison with India's vast population of 1.1
less than 0.5 per cent of the population, while average annual net emigration'
make up
4 population (all data from UNDESA 2006: 201).
is just 0.03 per cent of the total Indian through the "brain drain' have recently
Earlier concerns about the loss of skills
by the idea that overseas Indians can bring major benefits, in terms
been supplanted technical and managerial know]
and diffusion of
of remittances (financial transfers) deserting the nation, are being
redefned
who used to be seen as of
edge. Migrants, Indian Government set up a Ministry
development'. In 2004, the the In
as 'heroes of task of building connections with
Affairs (MOIA), with the
Overseas Indian development of their country of
their participation in the
dian diaspora and securingincluded the journal Overseas Indian (distributed in fve lan.
origin. Specifc measures countries(like the Philippines and
benchmarking best practices of other origin
guages).
SriLanka) and establishing special investment accounts for overseas Indians. Most im
portant has been the opening of opportonities for dual citizenship and voting rights
for overseas Indians (Khadria 2008).
Such steps represent an important shift in ideas about emigration. Al1hough they
have evolved in response to specifc Indian experiences, they ht in well with inter
national trends. Major emigrant origin countries such as Mexico, the Philippines,
links with cheir
Turkey and Morocco have all adopted similar measures to maintain
develop
einigrants, and to secure their financial support and expertise in national
countries have
ment (Castles and Delgado Wise 2008). Similarly, migrant destination
emotional links with their
and
learnt that newcomers need to maintaintheir cultural
detrimental to economic
places, of origin and that cultural diversity is not necessarily
many immigra
and social participation: Dual citizenship is increasingly accepted in
tion countries too (Faist 2007).

Immigrant Concentration and Social Change

(UNPD), 63 per cent of the
According to the United Nations Population Division they made up 8.7 per
2000, where
worid'smigrants yere in developed countries in
total popülation. By contrast, the share in developing countries had fallen
centof the
population (UNPD 2002).
to 37 per cent, only 1.3 per cent of total immigrant populations in the rich OECD coun
Fairly accårate data are 'available on
have a large and growing share of foreign-born residents. The
tries, most of which immigrant stocks. The USA had
countries have the iargest
classical immigration
immigrants in 2005, 13 per cent of the total US population. Canada had
38 million Aus
6 millien immigrants who made up 19per cent of the total population.
nearly makingup 23 per cent of
million in 2005,
tralia had an immigrant population of 4.8 major developed countries. If children
share of the
the total population--the largest are added, about 45 per cent of the
Australian
immigrant parent
With at least one immediate descendants. But European countries,
population are immigrant_ or their
aspired to be homogeneous nations, have also changed dramati
which .until recently nearly 11 million foreign-born residents, making
cally since the 1950s. Germany has the USA. Other Western European
population-just as high as
up 15per cent of the with population shares between 5 and 13 per
cOuntries host millions of immigrants
cent (data from OECD 2007).
nation seems to be àfigment of an outdated nationalist imagina
Ihe mono-cultural bastern
highly-developed countries at least. However, there are exceptions.
experience
don, in the ransition and
economic and political
European Countries are ina state of cent of their popu-
So immigrants are only 2-5 per population, while
both'emigration and immigration. the
lations, In Japan, foreign residents only make up 1.6 per cent of
(but numbers are growing fast).
in South Korea they make up just 1 per cent experienc-
Middle East are now
Many new industrial countries in Asia and the and Taiwan all
rely
ing large-scale immigratión- -Malaysia, Hong Kong, Singapore
heavily on migrant labour, while in the Gulf oil states (Saudi Arabia,
etc.) toreign workers often outnumber the native populations. The
Kuwait, Dubai,
governments of
Such countries reject the idea of permanent settlement (as European governments ald
back inhe 1970s), and therefore refuse to allowmigrants to bring in their tamilies or
become citizens. However, many observers believe that settlement processes are be
ginning, sothat these nations too willneed to think about long-term social, cultural
and political consequences (Castles 2004b). In Latin America; Argentina and Chile
country, is also
attract many migrant workers, while Mexico, still a major emigrationincreasingly also
a transit country for migrants from South and
Central America, and
Europeans focus on migration
a destination for immigrants. As for Africa, although migration is actu
cent of Afriçan
northWwards across the Mediterranean, over 90 per
highly-skilled and lower-skilled migrants mov
ally within the continent, with both
for example in Libya, Gabon, Ghana and South Africa (Bakewe<l
ing togrowth areas,
and de Haas 2007). their
concentration also take place within host counries..Migrants and
Processes of
settle mainly in large cities--they make up 44 per cent of thè population
descendants cent in London (ONS 2002) and 29
per
2007), 25 per
of Toronto (Statistics Canada are and immigration can
be-used as a ba
Migrants go where the jobs
cent in Brussels. cities, regions and countries. Migrantsalso go
dynamism of
rometer of the economic them to find jobs and accommodation-
who help
where they can join compatriots,
mechanisms reinforce each other and lead. to
residential
the 'network effect'. These
period of settlement of each group. Thisin turn puts
clustering, especially in the early deal with sudden infuxes of children with
have to
pressure on schools, which often
many different languages. accurate statistics are often
origin areas too, although
Concentration affects young
countries and regions it has become a normal part of
lacking. In somne abroad--leading to a 'culture of emigration!,
adulthoodto spend a period working populaions of Mexico, Morocco and the Philip
Currently about 10 per cent of the
working) abroad (Castles 2008). The Philippines has an
pines are living(and usually workers for the worid' and ghe majorityof
official policy of being the 'supplier of
domestic helpers, ieaciers, nurses andenter.
migrants are women who work as
Japan, the Middle East, Europe and North Anerica (Asis 2005, 2008).
tainers' in
Migrants come from specific areas, where working abroad has become part of the
for labour migra
local political economy-for India, Kerala is the prime exarnpie
ion to he Gulf. Often it is middle-income people with property and skills who
have the resources to move, so that emigration can both exacerbate skills shortages
and inequality.
Mioration leads to cultural and social change. In areas of origin, returnees may
import new ideas that unsetle traditional practices and hierarchies. In receiving areas,
migration is bringing about unprecedented cultural and religious diversity. Migrants :
are often seen as symbols of perceived threats to jobs, livelihoods and cultural identi
ties, resulting from globalization. Campaigns against immigrants and asylumn seekers
have become powerful mobilizing tools for the extreme right.
 Historically, nation-states have been based on ideas of common origins and cul
ture. Most migrants moved either with the intention of permanent settlement or of
a temporary sojourn in one receiving country. Today it is possible to go back and
forth, or to move on to other countries. Increasingly, migrants see thermselves as
members of transnational communities--groups that live their lives across borders
(Portes et al. 1999). Many receiving countries have changed their nationality laws to
help immigrants and their descendants to become cËtizens (Aleinikoff and Klusmeyer
2001; Bauböck et al. 2006a,b). Rethinking community cohesion and solidarity, to
include people with diverse cultural and religious practices, may be crucial for the
future of democracy.

Migration and Development

encourages de
Akey question in current international debates is whether migration
velopment of origin countries or hinders development? In thepast, the key issuewa_
whether the gains from remittances would outweigh thepotential losses from departure
Now,
of active workers-especially those with skills-the brain drain (Newland 2003).
ideas on the positive effects of migration on development are at the centre of policy
theme
initiatives. There has been a plethora of offcial conferences and reports on the
(e.g. DFID 2007; GCIM 2005; World Bank 2006). The main emphasis has been on
2006; World
the rapid growth of remittances to less-developed countries (Ghosh
Bank 2006). However, attention has recently begun to shift to the potential role
(10M
of migrant diasporas in contributing to the development of their homelands
2005; Newland 2007).
As political scientist Devesn Xapus (2004) has pointed out, remittances have be
come a new 'development rnantra'--the money sent home by migrants is thought
to promote local, regional arnd national development. Or, to put it less positively, the
.

idea is that some of the world's mst exploitd workers should provide the capital for
development, where official aid programmes have failed. It is useful to extend this
notion of a new mantra' to /nclude the whole range of benefits that migration is said
to bring for development:
Migrants also transfer home skills and attitudes, known as 'social remittances',
which support development.
'Brain, drain' is being replaced by 'brain circulation', which benefits both
sending and receiving countries.
Temporary (or circular) labour migration can stimulate development.
Migrant diasporas can be a powerful force for development, through transfer
of resources and ideas.
Economic development will reduce out-migration.
t Agrowing literature' deals with this theme. A key issue is the developmental im
pact of remittances. Millions of families in origin countries have become dependent
280
Stephen Castles
K World Bank estimates for 2006 put the total of
migrant
offcial channels to developing countries at S199 billion--a growthtransfers through
of 107 per cent
romthe 2001 hgure of $96 billion (World Bank 2007). However, unrecorded Aowe
through informal channels may add S0 per cent or more to recorded Aows. Remit.
Iances are now the largest torm of transter from North to South, exceeding foreien
aid and even foreign direct investment. In 2004, India was the world's largest recipi
ent of remittances with US$ 21.7 billion, folowed by China (US$ 21.3 Bilion), Mexicn
(USs 18.1 billion) and the Philippines (USS. 1!:6 billion) (World Bank 2006). The
global financial crisis of 2007-09 affected many farmilies in origin countries, although
remittances proved surprisingly resilient, as migrant workers made sacrifices to help
their families at home (Ratha and Zhimei 2008).
Detailed studies of origin countries show a diversity óf experiences. Remitances
do not automatically lead to benefcial economic and social changes. Indeed, under
certain circumstances, remittances can lead to inefficient types of investment and
economic dependence on continuingemigration, and sometimes even hide areverg
Aow of funds to rich countries. The cl¡imedpositive link berween remittances and
economic growth only applies if appropriate policies are put in place to encourage
legal transfers and productive investment, to reduce corruption and unnecessary bu
reaucracy, and to provide an investment-friendly infrastructure.
skilled is rather
The experience with technology transfer and return of the highly
similar--positive effects are only realized if opportunities and structures in emigra
before the end of their
tioncountries change in such a way that emigrants do return
able to ethhance,
working lives. A further pre-condition is that skilled migrants arenot the case, since
away. This is often
or at least maintain their qualifcations while
skilled migrants may be employed in low-skilled jobs.
(Levitt 1998). The message coming
Social remittances can also have varying effects
that new ways of working, inves(
back to home communities from emigråntscan be emigration
prosperity,but it can also be that
ing and running public affairs can bring
the only way out of a hopeless situation. The emergence of emigration as a ie
15
young people can lead to a loss not only of productive workers, but
Or passage tor Emigration of labour, whether skilled or less
also to the absence of agents of change.
the countryof emigratton. e
skilled, can lead to serious loss of potential growth for eftects.
the long run by positivemigration
question is whether this loss can be outweighed indebate
development concerns skilled
1ssue in the migration and changng
n key
Governments and international agencies now focus on fornms of
o e south. into more positive
what was previously seen as a damaging 'brain drain' official dec-
between
gap
brain circulation' or 'brain gain'. However, there is alargeefforts retain
great to attract and
still make
larations and the reality that rich countries
medicine, education and information
in the helds of Canada, Britain,
qualified personnel (especially the 1970s, the USA,
technology) from developing countries. Since rules to attract medical
preferential entry
Australia and New Zealand have established technology(IT)'profes-
increasingly, information their
doctors, engineers, managers and, European Union have set up
sionals. In recent Yers, Germany, France and the
 Own green card' or 'blue card' systems to draw in mobile professionals. Emerging
ASan eçonomies, like Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan have joined the race for
human capital and China is not far behind.
Opinions vary on the consequences of taking the 'brightest and best' (Ellerman
003: 17) from the Sputh. Stripping the scarce skills of southern nations in a global
brain drain' can harm health and education systems, and hold back development. In
2005, aquarter of all doctors in the USA and a third in the U6 were foreign rained
(OECD 2007: 181) Indian doctors and nurses from the Philippines were the largest
sources for OECD countries. India, with its huge population, can perhaps cope with
the departure of medical personnel, but some of the poorest African and Caribbean
countries (such as Mozambique, Angola, Haiti, Liberia and Tanzania) have lost more
than hàlf their dectors (OECD 2007: 176-7).
However, some experts argue that 'brain circulation' may,help improve education
.

systems in origin countries,and will in the long run lead toreturn of enhanced skills to
asist in development (Lowell et al. 2002). Taiwan's economic take-off relied substan
tialy on bringing back talents, while the growth of the Indian IT industry depended on
the return of professionals from Silicon Valley. But the Indian example also reveals the
problems of basing development on return of migrants--the growth ofa high-tech sec
tor seems to have brought litle beneft for millions of impoverished farmers and urban
slum-dwellers, and may have reinforced the dualism of the Indian economy.
Recognition of the role of diasporas in development does seem an important step
forward.. This new discourse in the international migration feld folows changes of per
ceptions in emigration countries and the introduction of a range of measures and institu
tions to involve the diaspora /n bringing about positive changes in the homeland. Col
lective remittances for community investment by 'hometown associations' and similar
groups are still very modest compared with private ffows. Knowledge transfer networks
(ike India's Diaspora Kndwledge Network or the Philippine's LINKAPIL) seem positive,
but quite small compared with individual remitances and commercial transfers.
The general conclusion ôn migration and development is therefore that there is
great potential for outcomes benehcial to sending country populations, but the con
ditions for realising these are complex and difhcult. Migration alone cannot
remnove
structural constraints to economic growth, social change and greater democracy.
There. is a néed for broadly-based long-term approaches that link the
efts of migration with more general strategies to potential ben
reduce inequality and to improve
economic infrastructure, social welfare and political
the benefits of migration for countriesof origin governance. Policies to maximize
should thus be part of much broader
strategies designed to reduce poverty and achieve development (DFID 2007:
37-40).

Migration and International Relations: The

Governance Deffcit
Cobalization involve_ the establishment of institutions of
ac rhe IMF and the World
Bank for fhinance, and the WTO global governance, such
.

for trade. Migration, by

282 Stephen Castles

COnrast, has been seen as a preserve of national sovereignty. Theré is a sernous gover
to ensure
iance dehcit-the international community has failed to build instiçutions
rhaximize developmeht
human rights of migrants and
orderly migration, protect theElements exist in
Denehts (Bhagwati 2003). of an international framework already Conven
UN
and No. 143 of 197S, and in. the 1990
ILO Conventions No. 97 of 1949
Workers and Members of their Farmilies. and there is
tion on the Rights of Migrant instrúments,
these
However, relatively few countries have ratifed international' measure, the.
the most important 2009-out of the
t e enective
cooperation. In fact, by July.
only been ratified by 42 nations concerned with,reducing
1990 UN Convention had Countries have been
192 members of the UN! Emigration remittances. Immigration countries have
needed to
internal labour surpluses and maximizingincrease labour costs. Efforts are
which might Conventions and to link them together in
been reluctant to take steps implement the
persuade more countries to workers. European Union has
comprehensive frarmework for the rights ofmigrant migration. The
a bodies seek to Cooperate on citizens of memberstates, and
com
Some regionalintroducing free movement for com
furthest by from non-members. In future,
gone
towards asylum and
migration
essential part of regional integration
RQlicies an
mÓr
policies on migration should be seen as on internationaB cooperation and de
mon linked to policies Migrants
"everywhere, and should be could also bring benefits.
cooperation between statessecurity. Emigration countries could
velopment. Bilateral protection and social and 're
through better and restrictions 'on agents
couldgain simoother transfer of remittances better-trained migrant
benefit from more stable and
Immigration countries could gain a
cruiters. the UN
workforce. International Migration mandated by
In 2003, a Global
Commission on
Report (GCIM 2005) argued that mi
work. The GCIM
Secretary General took up its national, regional and global strategies for
integral part of The GCIM put
gration should 'become an the developing and the developed world'.
economic growth, in both benefits of international migration, including
maximizing the and trafficking, to encour
forward proposals for drain', to prevent smuggling
measures to limit the 'brain enhance the role of diasporas as, agents of develop
and to ministers
age the Aow of remittances the topic of a High Level Dialogue of to the
development was
ment. Migration and General Assembly in September 2006. This led
and seniorofficials at the UN Migration and Developnent,. which imet in Brussels
establishment of aGlobal Forum on
and Athens in 2009.
in 2007, in Manila in 2008
have no decision-making powers--they have a merely advisory role
Such bodies implement ariy measures that might lead
and powerful states have been unwilling to experienced by developed státes
to higher costs for migrant labour. But the difficulties
more willingness to cooperate with ori
in managing migration may in future lead to dialogue and cooperj
gin states. Perhaps this might bring about greater North-South concerned are wiling
tion on migration issues. However, this willonly happen if all
forward that will be of
to move away from old prejudices and look for new ways
heneft to miaraats. sending countries and receiving countries alike.
Global Migration 283

It ismistaken to see migration in isolation, from wider issues of global power,

wealth and inequality. Mobility of people is an integral part of the major changes cur
rently affecting allregions of the world. Increasing economic and political integration
involves cross-border flows of capital, commodities, ideas and people. In recent years,
it has been the growing environmental challenges that have made us realize that we
live in one world and that national approaches on thÃir own are inadequate. The same
principle applies to migrationglobal cooperation is essential, and this requires ap
proaches that abandon short-term national interests in favour of long-term coopera
tion between rich and poor nations. Fairer forms of migration should be an integral
part of comprehensive development strategiesdesigned to reduce global inequality.

Endnotes

1. Much of this chapter is based on Castles and Miller (2009).

2. NRIs are emigrants who have retained their Indian nationality and are expected to return,
such as contract workers in the Gulf, Indian students in developed countries, or mobile
professionals. PIO'sare emigrants or their descendants wholive permanently overseas (e.g.
in Britain, the USA or Canada) and have taken up citizenship in their country of
residence,
while retaining family and cultural links with India.
3. Net emigration is equal to emigration minus immigration.
4. About 7 million of Germany's foreign-born
populatjon are of non-German origin (the
largest group being Turkish immigrants and their descendants), while about 4
'ethnic Germans, most of whom came from the former Soviet million are
Union and Eastern Europe
after 1990.
S. There are too many important works on this topic to list here. Many references are given
in: Castles and Delgado Wise
2008;Castles and Miller 2009; de Haas 2006; Massey et al.
1998; UNDP 2009. See also, the Migration
Information Source website-http:l/www.
migrationinformation.org/index.cfm
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