UNIT 1: Transformation of Functions, Exponentials, & Logarithms

Learning Outcomes

• Draw and recognize graphs of commonly used functions

• Apply and recognize transformations in graphs and their formulas

FUNCTIONS:
Inverse Functions: Functions that will be symmetric across the line of y = x

Example :
ex and ln(x) are inverse functions
x2 and √𝑥 are inverse functions

The functions of x2 and e2 with their inverse functions and the line y = x for reference

Exponential Functions: functions whose exponent is the argument

variable

Examples:
2x, ex, and 10x are all exponential functions
Exponential functions always pass through the point (0,1)
General equation of exponential
functions: C(t) = A + Bekt
• The value ‘A’ represents the horizontal asymptote’s y value.
• The value ‘B’ represents the vertical stretch
• The ‘k’ value represents the horizontal stretch. If ‘k’ is negative, the function
is flipped horizontally

The functions y = 2x, ex, and 10x graphed together

Logarithmic Functions: inverse functions of exponentials

Examples:
o low growth rate for large x
o Undefined for x ≤ 0. The domain of this function is any value larger
than 0
o Ex: ln(x), log2(x), and log10(x)
Powers of X Functions: functions represented by form f(x) = kxp
o K and p are real numbers
o Functions with positive integers for p pass through (0,0).
o Functions with negative integers for p are undefined at x = 0.

Examples:
o Ex: functions passing through
(0,0)
▪ x2, x1/2, x10
o Ex: functions undefined at x = 0.
▪ x-3
TRANSFORMATIONS:

Vertical shift: moves the function in the vertical direction.

o f(x) → f(x) + b
o x2 → x2 + 6 will translate the function up by 6

Vertical scaling: function grows or compresses vertically by a factor of 'a'

o f(x) → a*f(x)
o sin(x) → 3sin(x) will stretch the function 3x vertically
o A negative coefficient will cause a flip in the function

Horizontal shift: translates the function horizontally

o f(x) → f(x-a) will translate the function ‘a’ units to the right
o sin(x) → sin(x + pi/4) will translate the function pi/4 units to the left
o Adding an 'a' value translates the function to the left, subtracting an 'a' value
will translate the function to the right

Horizontal scaling:
o f(x) → f(cx)
o When lcl > 1, then a horizontal compression will occur by a factor of c
o When 0 < lcl < 1, then a horizontal stretch will occur, by a factor of 1/c
o If c is negative, then a horizontal flip will occur

Log and Exponential Equivalency:

ac = x means that logax = c

We can use these equations to come up with the following

equations: Loga(ax) = 𝑥 and aloga(x) = 𝑥

When computing with logarithms, there are a few rules we can use:

1. loga(A*B) = loga(A) + loga(B)

o Multiplication inside a log function equals the addition of each individual
log function
 2. loga(A/B) = loga(A) - loga(B)
o Division inside a log function equals the subtraction of each individual
log function
*make sure you subtract the log of the denominator from the log of
the numerator.

3. loga(AP) = P*loga(A)
o You can bring an exponent in a log out front

Conversion of log Functions:

logax = (log10x)/(log10a) or (logex)/(logea) = (lnx)/(lna)

Interpreting rates into formulas:

Continuous rate expressions are typically associated with the natural exponential
form, ert

Rate of growth/decay with measurements at the end of a period is usually in the

form (1+r)t
 UNIT 2: Limits Continuity and the Derivative

Learning Outcomes

• Define and evaluate the continuity for a function at a point.

• Compute limits of commonly used functions and their transforms.
• Define the derivative as the limit of a difference quotient.
• Interpret derivative values as rates of change.

Intermediate Value Theorem

f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b]

IF k is any given value between f(a) and f (b),
THEN there will always be some value, c, in [a, b] that crosses
k. SUCH THAT f(c) = k

The Limit

Intuitive Definition

lim f (x) equals a number L if:

X-+C

L value is as similar as possible to f (x), for all x-values close enough to the c-value

It is important to note that it HENCE the limit does not concern itself with the
actual value of the function at the limiting point or
is possible that this L value
whether or not that point is defined
DOES NOT EXIST

IMPORTANT! Limit is concerned with the value the function APPROACHES but what
happens at this point does not matter

TIP
Never look at exact
point ... only values
close to and around it
Consider the following ...

lim f(x) =4
6 ........: ......... : ......... ·········•······.. ......... . X➔2

. . ➔ Even though the actual function value at f (2)

4 ····•···:·········:. .......... ·········.. ·. is 6
. ..' . ···················
. .
.... ..
.
... ... ➔ value that the function APPROACHES as X
. . . . goes to 2 is 4.

Q-1---=--1------,-------1-----4----4--
�X
0 0.5 LO 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Continuity
A function is continuous at x = c if:
• f (c) is defined
o point c exists on the function
• lim f(x) is defined
X-+C

• Both the above values are

EQUAL
o lim f(x) = f(c)
X-+C

Consider the above graph ...

Iimf(x)
X-+2
= 4 ➔ :. lim f(x) exists
X-+C

[(2) =6 ➔ :. f(c) exist

BUT lim f(x) * f(c)

THEREFORE,
f(x) is not
continuous
Computing Limits

1. Try to evaluate the limit at the given value

(i.e. sub the x-value in question into the function)

2. If the result is an undefined function (i.e. 0 denominator)

➔ need to put in more work ➔ try to factor and simplify

For Example:

𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙 − 𝟒)
(𝒙−𝟐)(𝒙+𝟐)

(x
𝒙→−𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐
→ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (
𝒙→−𝟐 𝒙+𝟐
)

2-Sided2 Limit

limf(x) exists and is equal to L IF ...

X-+2

The right-hand limit lim f (x) and the left-hand limit EXIST and are EQUAL to L
x-->c

Limits at Infinity
➔ When x is very large limit approaches INFINITY

lim f(x)
X-->00
=L
When Evaluating ...
➔ First divide each term by the term with the largest degree (exponent)
➔ Next sub in very large values (positive or negative) and solve

NOTE! LIMITS CAN EQUAL POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE INFINITY FROM EITHER ONE OR BOTH SIDES
 UNIT 3: Differentiability & Computing Derivatives

Learning Outcomes

• Determine when a function is differentiable at a point

• Relate the derivative graph to the graph of an original function
• Compute derivative functions of powers, exponentials, logarithms,
and trig-functions
• Compute derivatives using the product rule, quotient rule, and
chain rule for derivatives
• Review trigonometric functions and their derivatives

Differentiability
➔ Asks the question: does the derivative exist?

f is differentiable at point a if

Interpreting Derivatives
➔ If the derivative is positive (f'(x) > 0), THEN f(x) is increasing
➔ If the derivative is negative (f (x) < 0), THEN f(x) is decreasing
➔ If f(x) = 0, (horizontal tangent line) f(x) has a critical point (max/min)

Interpreting Derivatives (Rules)

The following rules are based on the definition of the derivative
Come from patterns/families in derivatives

𝑑
Constant Rule: 𝑑𝑥
k =0

Power Rule:

d
Sum Rule:
dx f(x) + g(x)
= ( dxd f(x)) + (𝑑𝑥𝑑 g(x))

Difference Rule:
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
( f(x)- g(x)) = (𝑑𝑥𝑑 f(x))- (𝑑𝑥𝑑 g(x))
Constant multiplier:
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
[kf(x)] = k (𝑑𝑥𝑑 f(x)), where k is a constant
Exponentials and Logs

e as a base:

Other Bases:
d ln(x) = - 1
-
Natural Log Rule: dx x

Other Logs:

Products and Quotients

dx
𝑑
Product Rule: 𝑑𝑥
(f(x) · g(x)) = f'(x)g(x) + f(x)g'(x)
d f(x)
Quotient Rule: (
dx g(x)
) = f'(x)g(x) - f(x)g'(x)
(g(x)) 2

Chain Rule
• Idea of nested function (functions within functions)
o i.e. ln(x4)
■ where, ln is the outside function
■ (x4) is the inside function
• To calculate the derivative take the derivative of the outside (keeping the
inside the same) and multiply by the derivative of the inside

d
[f(g(x))] = f'(g(x)) · g'(x)
dx

𝑑 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑔
Leibniz Form: 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑑𝑔 ∙ 𝑑𝑥
Trigonometry Review
SOH CAH TOA

To reach a wider domain of trigonometric functions we use the unit circle

Pythagoras Theorem:
Properties of Trig Functions

➔ Sine and Cosine are oscillating functions

Consider the following function...

A sin(B(x- C))+D
A = Amplitude
B = frequency
C = horizontal shift
➔ Amplitude D = vertical shift
o Vertical scaling
o Difference between the average and peak

➔ Period
2𝜋
o Period =
𝐵

➔ Average
o What value does the graph circle around ?
o Usually indicated by the vertical shift
➔ Phase
o "start of the graph"
o Set: Bx - C = 0
o Solve for x

Derivative Rules for Trig Functions

d
cos(x) =- sin(x)
dx
d
tan(x) = sec2 (x)
dx
d
sec(x) = sec(x)tan (x)
dx
d
csc(x) = -csc(x) cot(x)
dx
d
cot(x) = - csc2(x)
dx
 Unit 4: Interpreting Derivatives, Local Linearity, and Newton's
Method

Learning Outcomes

• Write natural language interpretations of the derivative

• Create and apply linearization and tangent line formulas
• Apply Newton's Method as a tool for solving non-linear
equations

Review
o sin (a)= Opposite/Hypotenuse, cos (a)= Adjacent/Hypotenuse and tan (a)=
Opposite/Adjacent

o The inverse of a function f(x)=y is a function where if you input y into the function,
you receive an output of x.

o Visually, the inverse of a function is a graph that reflects the original graph along
the y=x line.

o The inverse of f(x)=y is written as f-1(y)=x

Example of function f(x) and inverse function f-1

Line Test

Horizontal Line Test: A horizontal line test is used to determine whether a

function is one-to-one (inversible.) If a horizontal line passes through a graph more
than once, the graph is said to be not one-to-one and consequently not inversible.

For example, the first graph is not one-to-one (not inversible), as there is a
horizontal line that intersects the function at more than one point. However, the
second graph is one-to-one (inversible), as all horizontal lines intersect the graph
at most once.

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse trigonometric functions are commonly used when trying to find the angles of
a right-angle triangle whose sides are of known lengths. This makes sense with our
definition of inverse functions. The x is interchanged with the y

Sin (x) = y → sin-1(y) =x

sin (α)= Opposite/Hypotenuse → sin-1(opposite/ hypotenuse) = α

This can be done for the other trigonometric functions as well.

Note: sin-1(x), cos-1(x), tan-1(x) are inverse functions and not reciprocals. Reciprocal
functions can be denoted as 1/sin(x), 1/cos(x), 1/tan(x) or (sin(x))-1, (cos(x))-1,
(tan(x))-1

There is one fundamental issue with the inverse of trigonometric functions,

which will be discussed later
Fundamental Issue with Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions are not one-to-one (inversible) as horizontal line test

passes the function at more than one point. In other words, one y value can
return multiple x values.

Example: sin(x) function

This applies for cos(x) and tan(x) as well

To prevent this problem, look at only a part of the domain of the trigonometric
function, so that the function passes the horizontal line test for that segment.

Sin and arcsine

When investigating the inverse of sin(x), we first take the function of sin(x) in the
domain
-π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2 , giving half of a period of the sin(x) function.

sin(x) in the given domain is called Sin(x)

The Sin(x) function has an inverse. The inverse function is called arcsin(x)

arcsin(x) has a range of -π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2 and a domain of -1 ≤ x ≤ 1

The arcsin function is the inverse of the sin function. As a result, arcsin will "undo"

the sin function. This is represented in the following equations.

arcsin(sin(x)) = x, for - π/2 ≤ x ≤ π /2

sin(arcsin(x)) = x, for -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 The graphs of Sin(x) and arcsin(x) with the line y = x for reference

By integrating and solving for the derivative of arcsine, we can get a simplified version as:

𝑑 1
arcsin(𝑥) =
𝑑x √1 – 𝑥2

Cos and arccosine

The same principles may be applied to the cos function.

In the domain of 0 ≤ x ≤ π the function cos(x) may be written as

Cos(x)

Inverse cosine function is arccosine: cos-1(x) = arccos(x)

*note, the ( -1 ) indicated the inverse, not the reciprocal

arccos(x) has a range of 0 ≤ y ≤ π and a domain of -1 ≤ x ≤1

arccos(cos(x)) = x, for 0 ≤ x ≤ π

cos(arccos(x)) = x, for -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 The graphs of Cos(x) and arccos(x)

Tan and arctan

The same principles are also applied to tan(x)

tan(x), - π/2 < x < π/2 can be written as Tan(x)

Tan(x) and arctan(x) are inverse functions.

As the tan function approaches vertical asymptotes, the inverse function, arctan,
approaches horizontal asymptotes.

𝜋
lim arctan (𝑥) =
x→∞ 2

𝜋
lim arctan (𝑥) = −
x→-∞ 2
 The graphs of Tan(x) and arctan(x)

Interpreting derivatives
"what is a derivative?"

A derivative represents the rate of change of a function at a certain point.

Local linearity: if a function is differentiable (you are able to take the derivative) at a certain
point, then it behaves like a linear function for x sufficiently close to that point.

At any point, if we "zoom in" enough, it will appear as a straight line

𝑓 ’(𝑥) =

If a value is given for ∆x, then

RECALL

Point/slope form for a linear function may be written as:

𝑦 = 𝑚 (𝑥 - 𝑎) + 𝑎

This function represents a line with slope m that will pass through the point (a, c)
Assuming that a function acts linear at values near a certain point, we can build an
approximation of a linear function based on a reference point.

Building off the point/slope form, where m will be the slope of the tangent line at the
reference point, we can linearly approximate the function with the following equation:

x - x value of a point we are approximating on the function

a - x value of reference point
f (a) - y value of reference point
f (a) - slope at reference point

The greater the difference between x and a, the worse the approximation

Example: the function 10𝑒-x +𝑥 = 7 cannot be solved by hand, so we must take an

approximation approach to achieve a high-accuracy estimate

Solution:

First, we rearrange: 10𝑒-x + 𝑥 - 7 = 0, we are solving for x where f(x) = 0

1. By creating a table of x vs f(x) and a graph, we can roughly tell what x may be

x f(x)

0 3
1 -2/3

2 -3.6

3 -3.5

4 -2.8

Graph of the given function

 From the graph above, which can be estimated by potting the approximated f(x)
values, x must be between the values of 0 and 1 for f(x) to equal 0

Newton’s Method
Newton's method is a root-finding algorithm; it produces successively better
approximations to the roots of a real-valued function

1. First, bring all arguments to one side. Ex: 𝑔(𝑥) =ℎ(𝑥) - 𝑓(𝑥)=𝑔(𝑥) - ℎ(𝑥)=0

2. Select a value of x, x0 near the root to f(x)

𝑓 𝑓 (𝑥 𝑥
Use formula 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 +1 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 -
to find the root of the tangent line at xn
𝑛𝑛 )
𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛)

4. Repeat step 3 until the new x value estimate is sufficiently close to a root

Example: Find a root of the following function using Newton’s Method

f(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 10x -2

Solution:

First let’s find the derivative, f’(x), to plug into the formula in step 3.

f’(x) = 3x2 + 4x - 10

Now let’s set f(x) = 0, and make a guess

0 = x3 + 2x2 – 10x -2

Guess 1: x1 = 2
(2)3 +2(2)2 −10(2)−2
x2 = 2 – = 2.6
3(2)2 +4(2)−10

𝑓(2.6)
x3 = 2.6 – = 2.45
𝑓′ (2.6)

𝑓(2.45)
x4 = 2.45 - = 2.438
𝑓′ (2.45)

Note. If we continue with this value, x4, we will only get smaller decimals, that way we know this
is our final answer. Often the question will state how many iterations to complete.
 UNIT 5: Implicit Differentiation, Related Rates

Learning Outcomes

• Apply implicit differentiation to find slopes in implicit functions

• Compute solutions to problems involving related rates of change

Implicit differentiation

➔ When using implicit differentiation, we treat the y’s as implicit functions of x

o This means that we treat y as a function of x

➔ Implicit differentiation is used when a formula cannot be defined as a function

o For example, a single x value will yield 2 y values on a circle (except when x =
radius). As a result, circles cannot be expressed as a function of y = …
form

➔ Instead, a circle can be expressed in the x 2 + y2 = r 2

form:
Rules for implicit differentiation:
For x terms: take the derivative of the x terms as normal
𝑑 2
➔ 𝑑𝑥
x = 2𝑥

For y terms: take the derivative of the y term as you would for x, but keep the dy/dx
term as the slope on y is a function of x curve
𝑑 2 𝑑𝑦
➔ 𝑑𝑥
y = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥

Related rates
As implied by the name, related rates use one function's rate of change to
calculate another function's rate of change.

General method:
1. Draw a picture or diagram representing the scenario at hand. Label all relevant
variables
2. Identify which of the variables and their rate of change are known
3. Identify the rate that we are trying to find
4. Write an equation involving the changing variables, including the function whose
rate you are trying to find. DO NOT include rates
5. Apply implicit differentiation to the equation, BEFORE substituting any known
variables
6. Substitute known variables and rates
7. Solve for desired rate
Example: Falling Ladder

Suppose we want to find the rate at which

y is falling, given that we know the rate at which x
is sliding.

Setting up an equation involving the z

changing variables: y

A 2 + B 2 = C2
x2 + y2 = z2
𝑑𝑥
x 𝑑𝑡

Apply Implicit differentiation (Note. Like the circle example, z is constant!)

𝑑
(x2 + y2 = z2)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2x 𝑑𝑡 + 2y 𝑑𝑡 = 0

We now have a relationship in which we know one change in time (dx/dt) and can find the rate at
which y is falling, given we know 2 sides (x,y or x,z or y,z) and the rate at which x is sliding.

Let,

• The ladder be 10 m (z = 10m)

• The base of the ladder be 7 m from the wall (x = 7m)
𝑑𝑥
• The ladder be sliding at a rate of 5 m/s ( 𝑑𝑡 = 5m/s)

x2 + y2 = z2

𝑦 = √(𝑧 2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑦 = √(102 − 72 )
𝑦 = √51
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2x 𝑑𝑡 + 2y 𝑑𝑡 = 0

𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 14
= − 2𝑦 𝑑𝑡 = − 2√51(5) = ~ - 4.9m/s
𝑑𝑡
 UNIT 6: Families of Functions, Taylor Polynomials, and l’Hopital’s
Rule

Learning Outcomes

• Compute and use first and second derivative information to describe

functions
• Apply limits and derivatives to infer general properties of families of
functions
• Compute higher-degree polynomial approximations using Taylor
polynomials
• Evaluate limit problems using l'Hopital's rule.

First and second derivative features:

First and second derivatives are useful tools to identify features of a function. The following table
shows the meaning of different first and second derivatives

Scenario Feature

f ' (x) > 0 on (a, b) f increasing on (a, b)

f ' (x) < 0 on (a, b) f decreasing on (a, b)

f '' (x) > 0 on (a, b) f concave up on (a, b)

f '' (x) < 0 on (a, b) f concave down on (a, b)

f ' (x) = 0 * Critical point occurs at point (x, f(x))

f ' (x) does not exist** Critical point occurs at (x, f(x))

f '' (x) = 0 *** Inflection point occurs at point (x, f(x))

 * when f ’ (x) = 0 , the slope is 0 and the tangent line is parallel to the x-axis ** when f
’ (x) does not exist, a critical point is observed at (x, f(x))
*** when f ’’ (x) = 0, the concavity changes.

Critical points:
Critical points will occur when either the first derivative of a function is 0 or does
not exist:

f ' (c) = 0 or f ' (c) DNE

The point on a graph, f(c) where a critical point occurs is called the critical value.

f(c) must be a defined value in order to be a critical point

For example, the function 1/x does not have a critical point at x = 0, even though f
(0) is
undefined, as there is no defined point when x=0 for this function.

Endpoints of a closed-interval function cannot be considered critical points.

Sign charts:
Sign charts are important diagrams to assist you in the drawing of a function.

a. First, take the derivative of the function and completely factor the derivative
b. Then, consider each factor individually and find where each factor of the derivative
equals 0 (if possible)
c. After considering the zeros of each factor, find whether the factor is positive or
negative on each side of the zero-value
d. Compare all three factors together.

If an odd number of factors is negative in a certain area, then the derivative will be negative (for that
area).
If an even number of factors is negative in a certain area, then the derivative will be positive (for that
area).
The number of positive factors in a certain area will not influence the sign of the derivative for that
area.
If there are zero negative factors in a certain area, then the derivative will be positive (for that area).

This can be kept track of on a number line. An example is shown below

𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 + 1
-1
 𝑓'

A sign chart for the function above is made below and further explained

f’(x) (-) | (+) | ( - )---------- ---- + x

-1 0 1

(1+ x) (-) | (+)---------------------- ---- + x

(1 - x) (+) | ( - ) ------ ---- + x
(x2 +1)2 (+) ------------------------------ ---- + x

From examining this sign chart for f ’(x), we can tell that between negative infinity and negative
one, the function is decreasing.
Between negative one and positive one, the function is increasing.
Between one and positive infinity, the function is decreasing again.

This same process may be completed for f ''(x)

Take the derivative of f ’(x) and follow the same process. However, the positive and negative zones
will indicate concavity instead of slope.

Families of functions:
Families of functions describe a broader set of functions with the same common form but
differing in one or more parameters.

For example, the following is a type of family of function:

𝑎𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2 + b

We will be examining other families of functions throughout the unit.

Taylor Polynomials
Taylor polynomials are an application of derivatives that allow us to construct a polynomial
approximation around a certain point for more complex functions.
 The equation to build a Taylor polynomial is as follows:

First degree Taylor polynomial: 𝑓

Second degree Taylor polynomial: 𝑓

Third degree Taylor polynomial: 𝑓

These polynomials may be used to answer questions that may have been unanswerable before.

L’Hopital’s rule
𝑓(𝑥)
L’Hopitals rule is a tool used to evaluate limits lim or lim that would yield an
x → ±∞
x→a 𝑔(𝑥)

indeterminate answer, being 0/0 or ∞/∞ when plugging the limit into the polynomial.
Instead, l’hopitals rule says that we can use the following:
𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥)
lim or lim 𝑓 𝑓 ( 𝑥 𝑥 = lim o𝑎𝑎 lim
) ௚′(𝑥𝑥)
š →ƒ š →േ ’
x→േ ’ 𝑔𝑔 (𝑥𝑥 )
 UNIT 7: Optimization, Optimal Margin Rates

Learning Outcomes

➔ Explain and apply the first and second derivative tests for classifying
critical points.
➔ Distinguish between global vs. local extrema in the abstract and in the
context of an optimization problem.
➔ Solve optimization word problems

First Derivative Test

Sketch f sign left of c f sign right of c
Local Minimum at c
Negative Positive
� (-) (+)

Local Maximum at c
Positive Negative
� (+) (-)
Neither Max. nor
Min. Positive Positive
� (+) (+)

Negative Negative
� (-) (-)

Second Derivative Test

➔ Uses the second derivative@ the critical point (not around) to determine max vs. min
Concave Up
➔ If f(c) = 0 and f"(c) > 0, then/has local maximum at c

Concave Down
➔ If f(c) = 0 and f"(c) < 0, then/has local minimum at c

Inflection Point NOTE!

➔ If f(c) = 0 and f"(c) = 0 test is inconclusive First and second
derivative tests only
give LOCAL
information.
Global VS Local Extrema
➔ If there are multiple max/min, we are usually interested in the GLOBAL max/min

➔ Local max occurs at x = c when f(c) > f (x)

o For x values around c
➔ Global max occurs at x = c when f(c) ≥ f(x)
o For all values of x
o Can have multiple global maxima if peak value is reached more than once

NOTE! Similar definitions apply for local and global min.

Global Extrema on Closed Intervals

➔ Continuous functions on closed intervals ALWAYS have a global max and a global min
value @
o Critical point OR
o Endpoint of the interval

➔ To determine these values

o Compute the values of the original functions at the critical points and determine which
are the largest vs. smallest

Global Extrema on Open Intervals

➔ May or may not have global extrema
➔ General guidance
o Look at values off when x approaches end point of intervals
o If only one critical point
■ Use first derivative test (max vs. min)

Optimization Word Problems

➔ Used to find maximum or minimum of some quantity
➔ The most challenging part is interpreting the wording of the question and determine the
formula of the function being optimized
 UNIT 8: The Integral

Learning Outcomes

➔ Explain the relationship between the definite integral and area.

➔ Construct definite integrals that represent given areas above and below the axis.
➔ Compute estimates of the definite integral using left and right sums, midpoint and
trapezoidal rules.

Distance and Velocity

➔ For a graph of velocity and time the distance travelled over a certain time is found by the
area under the graph
➔ Cannot determine the exact area (if velocity is not constant)---+ can only estimate

Generalized Area Estimates

➔ We can build an infinite number of rectangles to create exact estimates for area

➔ The height of the rectangle comes from the function value of the left edge

Left Hand Sum → LEFT(n), where n = # of rectangles

➔ Width of the rectangle for a function f (x) between x = a and x = b is

𝒃−𝒂
∆x=
𝒏
Therefore ...
n

LEFT (n) =∑ f(xi-1)∙∆ x

i=l

➔ The same concept applies to the Right-Hand Sum

General form:
n

Riemann sums = L f(x;) !ix

i=l
Riemann sum is utilized to Widths (Lix)
estimate area under curve Heights f(x;)
The Definite Integral
➔ As the number of rectangles increases, the better the estimate of the area under the
curve
➔ THUS, to calculate exact area we would want to use a limit
n
!::.
li m LEFT(n) = lim � f(xi_1) x
n ➔ ro n ➔roL
i =1

➔ AKA definite integral

o Definite integral of f(x) between x = a and x = b

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Where a and b are the limits of integration and f(x) is the integrand

Midpoint Rule
➔ The Riemann sum calculations can be made more accurate by using the midpoint of
an interval rather than the right or left ends

Trapezoidal Rule
➔ Can use a shape other than rectangles to make Reimann estimates i.e. trapezoid
➔ Uses a linear estimate for the data

TRAP(n) = f(xo) (x ) (x ) (x )
; [ i !::.x + f 1 ; f z !::.x

OR

LEFT(n) + RIGHT(n )
TRAP(n) = ------------------------------
2
 UNIT 9: Definite Integral Properties and the Fundamental Theorem
of Calculus

Learning Outcomes

• List properties of definite integrals.

• Define odd and even functions, and their relationship to integral values.
• Compute simple anti-derivatives and definite integrals.
• Use fundamental theorem of calculus to compute areas under simple
functions.

Definite integrals: the net area between a graph and the x-axis between
two defined values of x.
➔ Definite integrals may be used to calculate a net change over an integral based
off a rate of change
➔ Ex: if a rate is given for the flow of water into a container, then a definite
integral may be used to find the net change in volume of water over a period of
time

Additive properties:
➔ The integral of a function over an interval is equal to the sum of two integrals of that
function over the same interval
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
➔ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Inversed integral property:

➔ Inverting/swapping the bounds of an integral gives the same integral with the opposite
sign (positive - negative, negative - positive)
𝑏 𝑎
➔ ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Odd function integral properties:

➔ Odd functions pass through the point (0, 0) and are symmetric, but across
diagonal quadrants.
➔ f(x) = -f(-x)
➔ Over an interval of -a to a, the integral of an odd function will always be 0
𝑎
➔ ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
Even function integral properties:
➔ Even functions are symmetric across the y axis, and will always satisfy the equation:
f(x) = f(-x)
➔ The integral of an even function over the interval of -a to a is always twice the integral
over a period of 0 to a
𝑎 𝑎
o ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Graphs of Odd Function x3 and Even Function cos(x)

Linearity of definite integrals:
➔ Constant multipliers are able to be brought out of definite integrals:
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

➔ Integrals of a function can be broken apart into integral of the components of the function
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

* the if f(x) and g(x) are added inside the integral, the integrals of f(x) and g(x) must be added. If f(x) and g(x) are
subtracted inside the integral, the integrals of f(x) and g(x) must be subtracted.
Minimum and maximum values for definite integrals:
➔ When estimating the integral of a function, we can find a minimum and maxim estimate range.
➔ Identify the lowest point on f within the integration interval, [a,b], as m, and the highest as M.
The integral will always be in between the products m ∗ (b − a) and M ∗ (b − a)

𝑏
𝑚 ∗ (𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ 𝑀 ∗ (𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑎
Fundamental theorem:

The fundamental theorem states that we take a continuous function, f(x), over interval [a, b], and
the antiderivative to this function, what we define as F(x), to build the following equation:

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

➔ By using this formula, we can first find the antiderivative of a function, F(x), then sub in the
values a and b while using the equation above to get the integral of function f(x)

NOTES

➔ Make sure to always include the antiderivative symbol with bounds when
calculating integrals. Integrals without bounds are indefinite.

➔ While a definite integrals is a finite numbers, an indefinite integrals is a family

of functions.

➔ We can write the anti-derivative as a family of functions in the form F(x) + C

𝑏
➔ When evaluating an integral, instead of writing F(b) - F(a), you may write |
𝑎

➔ The variable of integration, usually x, may be replaced by another variable name

without ruining the value of the integral

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑇) 𝑑𝑇
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
 UNIT 10: Graphs of Antiderivatives, Substitution Integrals

Learning Outcomes

• Draw graphs of anti-derivatives based on the derivative graph.

• Evaluate definite integrals using the guess-and-check and
substitution methods.

Fundamental theorem: recall

➔ The fundamental theorem states that: f $(&) (& = *(+) - *(-), where F(x) is the
antiderivative to f(x)
(
/ $(&) = * ↔ *(&) = $(&)
(&

➔ This equation above shows us the relationship between the antiderivative of a

function and the function itself.
➔ This will allow you to sketch an antiderivative without being able to calculate
by hand.
#
Given the fundamental theorem, , "($) dx = *(+) , we can add change in
"

F to the anti-derivative graph. The change in height on an anti-derivative graph, F(x),

over an interval is the area under the curve of the function graph, f(x), over the same
interval.
Graph of f(x) Graph of F(x)

point ↔ slope
areas/integral ↔ F

The features mentioned above show how they translate from the function graph to
the anti-derivative graph

Anti-differentiation by inspection: guess and check method

➔ One strategy to find the antiderivative of challenging functions is to make an

educated guess, then check your answer and modify if needed.
Integration by substitution
➔ Substitution 'formalizes' the guess and check method.
➔ A variable is defined to represent the inside of a function.
➔ Typically, the derivative of this inside function is seen as a factor in the integral.

Steps for substitution:

1. Select a simple function, w(x) that appears in the integral and forms an equation
for this new inner function. w ’(x) is typically seen inside the integrand as well

2. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to dx.

𝑑𝑤
= … then rearrange and write in the form . . . dw = dx
𝑑𝑥

3. Substitute this equation in for dx in the integral, and rewrite in terms of

𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑤.

4. Evaluate the integral then sub x back in

Example: solve the following integral:

/ &&6%!'&(&

1. Define inner function &( − 3 as variable w

1 = &( − 3

2. Differentiate both sides and isolate for dx

(1 1
= 4&& → (1 = (&

(& 4&&

3. Sub in new equation and re-write integral

1 1 $ 1
/ &&6$ ∗ $
(1 → / 6 (1 → / 6 (1
4&& 4 4

4. Integrate the new function

1
6$ + =
4

5. Sub back in x values

1 %!'&
6 + =
4
Substitution for definite integrals

➔ When using substitution for definite integrals, make sure to either

convert the bounds to the new variable before evaluating, or to
rewrite the integral in terms of x before evaluating.

➔ To convert the bounds to the new variable, all that is needed is to

substitute each bound value of x into the equation for the new
variable.

o Ex: Convert x = 0 in terms of w, where w = sin(x).

a. Substitute 0 into the equation w = sin(0) = 1. The new

bound is w = 1
 UNIT 11: Integration by Parts & Average of a Function

Learning Outcomes

• Evaluate definite integrals using integration by parts.

• Compute the average value of a function.
• Identify the most appropriate integration method for a given
integral.

Integration by Parts Formula

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

→ Choose part of the integral to be u and the remaining part will be dv

o Differentiate to get du
o Integrate dv to get v

When Choosing u and

dv Try to make sure that
→ u' is simpler than u
→ ∫ 𝑑𝑣 is simpler than dv
o Make sure that dv is actually able to be integrated by itself
NOTE! This process will require practice and some level of trial and error

PRO TIP! It is important to check your final

answer by differentiating …
you should always get the initial
function back
Integration by Parts Formula: Definite Integrals

→ Must apply limits of integration to entire antiderivative

→ After integrating, evaluate at both limits and then subtract to get the final answer
→ Example:
𝜋
∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
Solution
Let,
u = x, dv = cos(x)
Then,
du = dx, v = sin(x)
so,
𝜋 𝜋
∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) − ∫ sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝜋
𝜋
∫ 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) + cos(𝑥))|
0
0
𝝅
∫ 𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = −𝟐
𝟎

Average Value of a Function on [a,b]

→ Essentially a rectangular area

b
1
A= ∫ f(x) dx
b−a a

b
(b − a) ∙ A = ∫ f(x) dx
a

The End!