Matter: Properties, composition, Potential Energy – Energy of an object possesses due

and changes it undergoes to its position, condition, or composition

a. Fundamental Definitions Systems w/ Lower energy -> more stable, more

Chemistry – Study of Matter favored
- Properties of matter, changes it undergoes,
Law of Conservation of Energy – “energy cannot be
energies associated with changes
created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from
Matter – anything with mass and volume one form to another”

- Mass -> amt of material present Law of Conservation of Mass – no observable change
- Volume -> amt of space it occupies in quantity of matter during chemical or physical
change
Classifications of Matter
Mass is conserved in a chemical reaction
- By Composition
o Element Law of definite composition – compounds have
▪ consists of only one element constant defined rations of elements as determined
(can be >1 atoms) by its mass
▪ a pure substance
Law of multiple proportions – proportions must be in
▪ particles of elements are
multiple (weight of combined different elements are in
composed of a single element
ratio)
o Compound
▪ Consists of more than one b. Measurement of Matter
element
▪ A pure substance
▪ Particles of compounds are
composed of multiple elements
o Mixture
▪ Consists of multiple substances
(= elements + compounds)
▪ Can be hetero- (non-uniform)
and homo- (uniform) - genous

A single particle with >1 atoms is a molecule

SI base units -> defined against physical constant
- By Separation between Particles
o Solid – rigid, has fixed position of Factor label method – conversion from unit to unit
particles
Accuracy – correctness
o Liquid – fluid, conforms to shape of the
container Precision – repeatability
o Gas – undefined structure, will occupy
available space Accurate measurements compare favorably with
- By Property known values
o Chemical Properties – interaction of
particles with each other
Precise measurements compare favorably with
o Physical Properties – motion of replicated measurements
particles
c. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
▪ Intensive Properties – DO NOT
1. An Element is composed of atoms (indivisible
depend on the amount of matter
▪ Extensive Properties – depend on particles)
the amount of matter 2. Atoms of an element have the same
- Others properties (differs from diff elements)
o Exothermic – energy is released when 3. Atoms can’t be created, destroyed, or
the change occurs transformed
o Endothermic – energy is absorbed to 4. Compounds form when atoms from diff
allow for change
compounds combine (Law of Definite
Kinetic Energy – Energy of an object in motion Composition)
 5. Atoms of diff elements can combine to form Quantum theory and atomic
ratios of compounds (Law of Multiple structure
Proportions) a. Basic Properties of Light
6. Relative numbers and kinds of atoms are Spectroscopy – study of how matter interacts
constant in a given compound with light
7. Chemical reaction -> rearranges atoms Light
d. Atomic Symbol and Isotopes of the Elements - an electromagnetic radiation
Atoms consist of 3 fundamental particles: - an oscillating electric field perpendicular
electrons (-), protons (+), and neutrons to an oscillating magnetic field

-
Wavelength of light (λ) – distance from crest to
Changes occur with the removal or addition of crest
electrons
X is the symbol for the element (i.e. Au) Frequency of light (Hz or s^-1) – number of
A is atomic mass oscillations in 1 second
Z is atomic number 𝑐 = 𝜆𝑓

Where c is the speed of light = 2.99 x 10^8 m/s

Z = # of protons
Neutrons = A - # of protons Wavelength or frequency gives its color
Electrons = Charge – Electrons
Wave Model of Light
Isotopes – atoms with same Z but diff A - assumes light behaves as a longitudinal
wave
Atomic mass denoted in the periodic table is an - states that light is made of waves
ave mass based on abundances propagating perpendicular to the
direction of its movement
Calculating Abundances - it could not explain the photoelectric
Step 1: Find Ave Atomic Mass effect because the theory assumes light
Step 2: Set up Equation is a wave, not a particle
𝑀1 𝑥 + 𝑀2 (1 − 𝑥 ) = 𝑀(𝐸) - it could not explain black-body radiation
• M1 denotes the mass of one isotope’
because it did not account for energy
• x denotes its relative abundance.
quantization
• The mass of the second isotope is denoted
by M2. Black-body Radiation
• M(E) denotes the periodic table element’s
- an object that absorbs and emits all
atomic mass.
wavelengths
Step 3: Solve for x - when heated, emits light
- stems from oscillation of electrons
Step 4: Multiply by 100 to get percentage of
abundance Rayleigh-Jeans Law

Atoms - attempted to explain spectral

distribution of energy emitted by a
- Its nucleus consisted nearly all of its
blackbody as a function of wavelength
mass
or frequency
- Contains mostly empty space
- accurate until the frequency reached uv
- Volume determined by the size of the
range
electron cloud around it
 - Law failed at Ultra-Violet frequencies -> o E- in a stationary energy state
the Ultra-violet catastrophe will not radiate energy (will not
Planck’s Solution spiral into the nucleus)
- Hypothesized that energy of oscillators o E- changes to other states by
are not continuous but discreet (integers absorbing or emitting photon
i.e. 1, 2, 3,…) - Atomic spectra are not continuous as it
𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓
- Where n is some integers, f is a
frequency, h is planck’s constant =
6.626 x 10^- 34 Js
Photoelectric Effect
- States that when light hits a plate with only has certain states
electrons, the electrons interact with the - Explains H emission spectrum but fails
electric field component of light and is everything else
ejected o Electrons as waves is not
- Proposed that light energy is quantized accounted
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 o Fails to account electron-
𝐾𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝛷 electron repulsion
- Where KE is the Kinetic energy of an De Broglie Principle
ejected electron, E is photon energy and - Thought that very small particles may
Φ is the work function also be a wave (so e- must be too)
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝛷/ℎ - Applied wave particle duality to matter
- Where fmin is the threshold frequency to - The greater the mass the smaller its
eject an electron wavelength and wave properties
- If hf> Φ, there will be no photoelectric become negligible
emission - For e- to exist, the circumference of its
b. Atomic Spectra orbit must be integral multiples of its
Emission spectra wavelength
- Used to identify elements Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
- Line spectra - You cannot obtain position and
- Every element has a unique emission momentum of an electron at the same
spectrum time
Balmer Formula - Consequence of wavelike property of
matter
- Created by Swiss Johann Balmer to d. Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
calculate wavelengths in the hydrogen Schrodinger’s Equation
spectra - When solved, gives wavefunction Ψ
c. History of Quantum Mechanics - Ψ Describes electron
The Bohr Model - Ψ^2 = electron density (probability of an
- Combined nuclear model and atom to be found at that location)
quantization concepts - Solutions give shapes of orbitals
- Rydberg
formula

- Assumes electrons move in circular orbit

o E- only orbits in certain radii
 - Ψ is also a function of 3 quantum
numbers - Arranged according
- Principal Quantum number (n) to energy
o Denotes size of electron density - orbitals are filled in
o Denotes energy level w/ e- starting from
- Orbital quantum number (l) the lowest energy
o Denotes shape - the Aufbau principle
- Magnetic quantum number (m_l) - each subshell can
o Denotes orientation be denoted as a line
o Denotes subshell e- occupies filled with 2 e- with
- Spin quantum number (m_s) opposite spins
o Denotes spin
o +1/2 or -1/2 - Each e- is described
by quantum numbers
- Encircled e- is ->
Chemical periodicity n=3, l=1, m_l=+1,
m_s=+1/2
a. Electronic Configuration
- m_1 values are
Main group elements
assigned positive to
- Elements with s and p orbitals
negative (left to right)
- Follows the octet rule
- Hund’s rule of
- Grouped together by # of e- in the outer
maximum multiplicity
shell
Pauli Exclusion Principle

- No e- in an atom have identical sets of 4

quantum numbers
- Quantum numbers are means to identify
Transition Metals an electron in an electronic
- elements with d orbitals configuration
- rarely get octet electrons
Rare-earth elements (not really rare) Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism
- Elements with f orbitals - Paramagnetic
- Does not use f electrons o Substances with unpaired
electrons (weakly attracted to
magnetic fields)
- Diamagnetism
o All electrons are paired (weakly
repelled by magnetic field)
- Ferromagnetism
o Fe, Co, Ni can exhibit this and
Electronic Configuration become permanently
magnetized

b. Periodic Properties of Elements

Atomic Radius
- Describes size of atoms
- Consequence of columbic force of
attraction between nucleus and e-
- Cforce is directly proportional to charge
and inversely to distance
 - Cations are smaller than their neutral c. Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids
atoms Metals
- Has suffix -ium
- Outer shells have a few e-
- Form cations by losing electrons (low IE)
- Form ionic compounds w/ nonmetals
(oxidized)
- Mid to high MP
- Good conductor of heat and electricity
- Luster, malleable and ductile
- Metal oxides are basic
Nonmetals
Ionization Energy
- Outer shells have <=4 e-
- Energy required to remove an electron
- Form anions by gaining electrons (highly
from a gas atom
negative EA)
- smaller atom will have its e- harder to
- Forms ionic compounds
remove so >IE and vice versa
- Forms covalent compounds w/ other
nonmetals
- Insulators
- >MP
- Diatomic molecules (Have No Fear Of
Ice Cold Beer)
- Nonmetal oxides are acidic
Electron Affinity Metalloids
- Energy change when an e- enters a gas - Shows both metallic and nonmetallic
atom character
- The smaller the atom, the easier the - Can be cationic or anionic
entrance of e- so >EA and vice versa - Can form covalent bonds
- Typically blur the boundaries of ionic and
covalent bonds
- Metalloid oxides are ampotheric

Electronegativity
- Measure the relative tendency of an
atom to pull electrons to itself when
combined with another element
- Pauling Scale
- Elements follow trend of EA

Chemical bonding
a. Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonds
- bond held by columbic forces of
attraction
 - opposite charges attract 4. Add or remove electrons to induce charge
- attraction is omnidirectional d. Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
- forms extended ordered structures Bond Polarity
- - and + are balanced - Electronegativity starts dipole moment
- Lattice enthalpy – energy needed to - Electron cloud will be denser to the more
separate ionic solid to gaseous ions electronegative element
- The stronger the attraction, the larger
Intermolecular Forces of attraction (IMF)
the lattice enthalpy
- Attraction bet. Particles
- Stronger attraction, higher MP
- Full charges> partial charges
Columbic force of attraction (CFA) - London Dispersion Force
o Generated by instantaneous
dipoles
o Low probability of bonding
o Duration of attraction is short
- Small ions w/ high ionic charges, large - Weak forces are added with large
CFA number of forces to become stronger
- Large ions w/ small ionic charges, small Solubility
CFA - Ability of particles to be separated by a
Covalent bonds solvent
- held by sharing electrons - Depends ability of solvent to surround
- bond is unidirectional and molecules
interconnected - Like dissolves like
- stronger than CFA e. Bond Energies and Bond Lengths
Metallic bonds Bond length – distance where bond is most
- held by overlapping orbitals stable
- Omni directional covalent bond Bond energy – energy required to separate
- Wavefunction is sum of all atoms, endothermic
wavefunctions Bond order – number of electron pairs shared
- E- move through orbitals making Bond order = ½ (Bonding – Anti Bonding)
material more conductive Bond length follows trend in atomic radius
- Gives rise to ductility and malleability
- Higher MP
b. Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule Molecular geometry and bonding
Lewis Dot Structure theories
- Central atom is least electronegative a. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
element - Governs shapes of molecules
- Resonance structure when more than 1 - E- pairs repel (causes pairs to be far
Lewis structure can be drawn apart as possible)
- Resonance hybrid is a better repr. - Molecules adopt geometry that max
- Formal charges – hypothetical charge of bond angles
atoms Electron Groups
- BEST Lewis structure is zero formal - Bonding pair – confined to a region bet.
charges through out Atoms
c. Drawing Lewis Structures - Non Bonding pair – less restricted and
1. Select central atom repel other e- groups more (contracts
- Least electronegative usually bond angles)
- For molecules with >1 central atom the - Base geometry adopted due to repulsion
most symmetrical is used of e-
2. Draw elements with valence electrons Molecular Geometry – final geometry of
3. Bond electrons together molecule
 c. Molecular Orbital Theory
Modern theory of bonding
- Atomic orbitals combine to form
molecular orbitals (bonds)
o No hybridization
o Linear combination
o Determined by symmetry
- E- fill up orbitals
Molecular Orbital Theory
- E- are delocalized thru out the entire
molecule
- Meaning e- are spread out through the
molecule
- Combines orbitals to form molecular
orbitals (σ, σ*, pi, pi*)
- Creates bonding and antibonding based
b. Valence Bond Theory
on which orbitals are filled
- Covalent bonds form by overlapping of
- Predicts geometry of e- based on shape
valence e-
- Bonds is localized bet. one pair of atoms
Localized meaning e- in the molecule
Linear combination of atomic orbitals
stay between the two atoms in the
- # of atomic orbitals used = # of
molecule
molecular orbitals formed
- Forms sigma or pi bonds
- Combinations can be thru sum or
- Predicts molecular shape based on the
difference
# of regions of electron density
o Ψ1 + Ψ2 Bonding
Hybridization o Ψ1 – Ψ2 Anti-bonding
- Atomic orbitals mix orbitals to form Bonding
symmetric valence orbitals - Increases electron density bet. 2 nuclei
- # of atomic orbitals will mix into = # of - More stable
symmetric orbitals - Bonding combo lowers energy
Antibonding
- Has a node bet. Nuclei
- Nuclei repel one another
- Makes it less stable
- Antibonding combo increases energy
- For AO to form MO, they must be similar
in energy and orientation
- The d orbital in sp3d is the dz2 orbital Three types of interaction
- The d orbitals in the sp3d2 are the dz2 - Sigma (σ) head to head
and the dx2-y2 - Pi (π) side to side
- The orbitals are chosen due to their - Delta (δ) front to front
orientation
Molecular Polarity
- Difference of electronegativity
- A molecule with polar bonds may or may
not be polar
- Geometry plays a role in polarity
- Dipole is repr. By a vector
- Net dipole is obtained from vector add.
Bond order
- Determines stability of molecule
- Higher the order, stronger the bond

Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO)

- Filled orbital with highest energy
- Where e- come from
Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO)
- Unfilled orbital with the lowest energy
- Where e- enter
Band Gap
- Energy diff. bet. HOMO and LUMO