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Reactance (X) and Impedance (Z)

Reactance (X) is defined as the property of an inductor or a capacitor to oppose current flow in a
given circuit.
1 1
𝑋 = ω𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑋 = =
ω𝐶 2𝜋𝑓C
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

Where,
𝑋 = inductive reactance (Ohm)
𝑋 = capacitive reactance (Ohm)
𝐶 = capacitance (Farad)
𝐿 = inductance (Henry)
ω = angular velocity (Radians per sec)
𝑓 = operating frequency (Hz, or cps)

Impedance (Z) is the total opposition to current flowing in AC Circuit which is the sum of resistance
and reactance.

Behavior of Loads of AC Circuits

Purely resistive loads
• The current is always in phase with the voltage (phase angle is zero).
• The current, I = where V and I are *rms values. [Rms=0.707𝐸 ]
• The power consumed (dissipated) = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑅 =
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

• The impedance, Z = R

Purely inductive loads

• The current always lags behind voltage by exactly 90 electrical degrees (ELI).
• The current, I = = .
• The power consumed (dissipated) is zero.
∠
• The impedance, Z= = ∠90 = ω𝐿∠90 = 𝑗𝑋
∠

Purely capacitive loads

• The current always leads the voltage by exactly 90 electrical degrees (ICE).
• The current, I = = 𝑉(2𝜋𝑓𝐶).
• The power consumed (dissipated) is zero.
∠
• The impedance Z = = ∠ − 90 = ∠ − 90 = −𝑗𝑋
∠

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AC Circuit Analysis
Series RL Circuit

• 𝑍 = R + j𝑋 = 𝑍 ∠θ
• |Z| = 𝑅 +𝑋
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

• θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
• 𝐼 =

• 𝑉 = 𝑉 + j𝑉 = |𝑉 |∠θ
• |𝑉 | = 𝑉 +𝑉
• θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛

AC Circuit Analysis
Series RC Circuit

• 𝑍 = R − j𝑋 = 𝑍 ∠θ
• |Z| = 𝑅 +𝑋
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

• θ = −𝑡𝑎𝑛
• 𝐼 =

• 𝑉 = 𝑉 − j𝑉 = |𝑉 |∠θ
• |𝑉 | = 𝑉 +𝑉
• θ = −𝑡𝑎𝑛

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AC Circuit Analysis
Series RLC Circuit

• 𝑍 = R + j𝑋 − 𝑗𝑋 =
𝑍 ∠θ
• |Z| = 𝑅 + (𝑋 −𝑋 )
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

| |
• θ = ±𝑡𝑎𝑛
• 𝐼 =

• 𝑉 = 𝑉 + j𝑉 − j𝑉 =
|𝑉 |∠θ
• |𝑉 | = 𝑉 + (𝑉 −𝑉 )
| |
• θ = ±𝑡𝑎𝑛

AC Circuit Analysis
ADMITTANCE

Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance, Z and is given the symbol 𝜸. In AC circuits admittance is
defined as the ease at which a circuit composed of resistances and reactances allows current to flow
when a voltage is applied taking into account the phase difference between the voltage and the current.
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

CONDUCTANCE

Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, R and is given the symbol G. Conductance is defined as the
ease at which a resistor (or a set of resistors) allows current to flow when a voltage, either AC or DC is
applied.

SUSCEPTANCE

Susceptance is the reciprocal of reactance, X and is given the symbol 𝜷. In AC circuits susceptance is
defined as the ease at which a reactance (or a set of reactances) allows current to flow when a voltage is
applied.

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AC Circuit Analysis
Parallel RL Circuit
• 𝑌 = G − j𝐵 = 𝑌 ∠θ
• |𝑌| = 𝐺 +𝐵
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

• θ = −𝑡𝑎𝑛
• 𝑍 = ; = +j
| |

• 𝐼 = 𝐼 − 𝑗𝐼 = |𝐼 |∠θ

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, • |𝐼 | = 𝐼 +𝐼
−θ = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Y = admittance (Siemens) • θ = −𝑡𝑎𝑛
G = conductance (Siemens)
𝐵 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠) • 𝑉 =𝐼 ∗𝑍

AC Circuit Analysis
Parallel RC Circuit

• 𝑌 = G + j𝐵 = 𝑌 ∠θ
• |Y| = 𝐺 +𝐵
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

• θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
• 𝑍 = ; = −j
| |

• 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝑗𝐼 = |𝐼 |∠θ

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, • |𝐼 | = 𝐼 +𝐼
−θ = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Y = admittance (Siemens) • θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
G = conductance (Siemens)
𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠) • 𝑉 =𝐼 ∗𝑍

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AC Circuit Analysis
Parallel RLC Circuit
• 𝑌 = G + j𝐵 − j𝐵 =
𝑌 ∠θ
• |Y| = 𝐺 + (𝐵 −𝐵 )
| |
• θ = ±𝑡𝑎𝑛
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

• 𝑍 = ;
| |
• = −j +j

• 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝑗𝐼 − 𝑗𝐼
= |𝐼 |∠θ
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
−θ = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 • |𝐼 | = 𝐼 + (𝐼 −𝐼 )
Y = admittance (Siemens)
G = conductance (Siemens)
𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠) • θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝐵 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠)
• 𝑉 =𝐼 ∗𝑍

AC Circuit Analysis
Power in AC Circuits
 True/Real/Active Power is the component of apparent power that represents true work. It is
expressed in Watts (W) and is equal to voltamperes multiplied by the power factor.

 Reactive Power is the power value obtained by multiplying together the effective value of current
in amperes, the effective value of voltage in volts and the sine of the angular phase difference
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

between current and voltage. Also called reactive voltamperes and wattless power. It is expressed
as volt-ampere reactive (VAR).

 Apparent Power is the power value obtained by multiplying the effective values of voltage and
current. It is expressed in voltamperes (VA).

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AC Circuit Analysis
Power Triangle
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑍

AC Circuit Analysis
Power Factor Types
 Unity Power Factor is when the voltage and the current are in phase, therefore resistive.
𝑝𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1
 Leading Power Factor is when the current leads the voltage by an acute angle 𝜃, therefore
capacitive.
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

𝑝𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 < 1

 Lagging Power factor is when the current lags the voltage by an acute angle 𝜃, therefore
inductive.
𝑝𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 < 1

 Zero Power factor is when the current and the voltage are out of phase by exactly 90˚.

𝑝𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠90 = 0

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AC Circuit Analysis
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
Commercial or industrial operations rarely achieve a PF of 1.0 because inductive loads from motors,
transformers and light fixture ballasts are common. This inductive effect causes the phase of the current
to lag behind the phase of the voltage. A greater lag in current results in a poorer power factor. The PF
can be improved by adding capacitance to the circuit. A capacitor has the effect of causing the phase of
the voltage to lag the phase of the current and thus reduces the lagging effect caused by the inductive
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

loads. Capacitors or synchronous motors are frequently used to counter the effect of inductive motors
and transformers in industrial applications.

The main advantages of the PF correction are as follows:

1. A high PF reduces the load currents, resulting in a considerable saving in hardware costs
(i.e., conductors, switchgear, substation transformers, and so on).
2. Power companies typically impose low power factor penalties, so by correcting the PF, this
penalty can be avoided.
3. The electrical load on the power company is reduced, which allows the power company to
supply the surplus power to other consumers without increasing its generation capacity

AC Circuit Analysis
Ex.1: A wound coil that has an inductance of 180mH and a resistance of 35Ω is connected to a 100V
50Hz supply. Calculate: a) the impedance of the coil, b) the current, c) the power factor, and d) the
apparent power consumed. Also draw the resulting power triangle for the coil.

Data given: R = 35Ω, L = 180mH, V = 100V and ƒ = 50Hz.

Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

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AC Circuit Analysis
Ex.2: Determine the equivalent impedance of the network shown if the frequency is f=60 Hz. Then
compute the current i(t) if the voltage source is v(t) = 50 cos(ωt + 30°) V. Finally, calculate the equivalent
impedance if the frequency is f=400 Hz.
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

AC Circuit Analysis
Ex.3: Determine 𝑣 (𝑡) in the circuit.
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

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AC Circuit Analysis
ENERGY CHARGE
The energy charge is simply the cost of electrical energy consumed (Php energy). This may be
computed by the following equation, where energy consumption (q) is expressed in kilowatt-hours and
unit cost of electricity (Php/kWh) is expressed in Philippine peso per kilowatt-hours:

𝑃ℎ𝑝 = 𝑞 ∗ 𝑃ℎ𝑝/𝑘𝑊ℎ
Single Phase Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

The energy charge is based on energy consumed by the customer during a billing period, say once a
month or every 30 days. Energy consumed is determined by reading the electric meter.