MATERIALS FOR

CONCRETE
These are Aggregates, Cement, Water, Additives and Admixtures.
We will discuss each of these in greater detail since their properties and
other characteristics determine a great deal about the nature of concrete
produced.
 Aggregates
• Aggregates are chemically inert or inactive materials which when bonded
together with cement will form Concrete. Most are naturally occurring
e.g. sand, gravel, crushed rock. etc
• Aggregates can be subdivided into 2 categories namely;
-Fine Aggregates
-Coarse Aggregates
• Fine Aggregates are those whose size is less than 4.75mm e.g. sand,
crushed stone, crushed slag.
• Coarse Aggregates are those whose size is greater than 4.75mm e.g.
crushed stone or metal
 Types of aggregates

Coarse aggregates Fine Aggregates

 Classification of aggregates

• Aggregates can be classified in as number of ways including the basis of;

source, size, shape, surface texture and weight.
Basing on:
Source; natural aggregates, manufactured aggregates, Recycled aggregates
Size; Coarse aggregates, Fine Aggregates
Shape; rounded, irregular, Angular, Flaky and elongated aggregates
Texture; Smooth, Rough, Granular, Crystalline, glassy
Weight; ultra light weight( 500kg/m3), light weight( 500-1129 kg/m3),
Normal Weight (greater than 2100kg/m3), heavy weight( greater than
2400kg/m3 for radiation shielding, counterweights, ballasting etc)
 Choice of aggregates
The Choice of aggregate to be used in a specific situation or for a
particular purpose depends highly on the classification of aggregates.
For example;- heavy weight aggregates are used to create concrete that
is denser than regular concrete which can be used in applications like
radiation shielding, counterweights and ballasting( providing substantial
weight and load bearing capacity like in building foundations and road
construction) while light weight aggregates can be used to create lighter
concrete beneficial for reducing structural weight in high rise buildings,
roof structures, wall construction etc
 Production & Grading of aggregates
Steps involved in the production of aggregates.
 Mining: Extracting raw materials like rocks, sand and gravel from
natural deposits.
 Crushing: Breaking down the raw materials into smaller particles
using crushers.
 Screening: separating the crushed materials into different size
categories using a vibrating screen.
 Washing: Removing dirt and impurities from the aggregates.
 Grading, Packaging and Transportation.
The production process visualizer
 Production & Grading of aggregates
Grading of Aggregates
Grading of aggregates is the analysis of the size of aggregates available in
a given sample usually by sieve analysis. Depending on the results from this
test, aggregates may be;
Well graded;- containing aggregate particles of all sizes from finer to
coarse aggregates in it.
Gap graded;- containing only specific sizes of aggregates while others are
so few or completely absent.
Poorly graded;- containing only or mostly particles within the same size
range.
Grades of aggregates
 Aggregate properties and tests.
Aggregate properties are the physical qualities and the chemical
composition of the aggregates that determine how they will be applied in
construction. Various tests are used to obtain and quantify these
qualities…
Some of these properties include;
Composition; the chemical elements that make up the aggregates.
Size; the physical extent or bulk of aggregates.
Surface texture; roughness or smoothness of aggregates.
Specific gravity; their density relative to that of water.
Bulk density; the overall mass and volume of aggregates and voids
 Aggregate properties and tests.
Porosity; the measure of how much air or void space is present in an
aggregate substance.
Surface Index of aggregate; the specific surface area of aggregates
Deleterious material; these must be tested to ensure that they do not
react with cement or weaken concrete.
Crushing value of aggregate; the compressive strength the aggregate.
Abrasion value of aggregate; a relative measure of resistance to wear
and shearing forces.
 Aggregate tests
• Sieve analysis
This test is used to determine the particle size distribution of and aggregate
sample, ensuring proper gradation for optimal concrete performance.
• Specific gravity and Water Absorption
These tests measure the aggregate’s density and ability to absorb water,
influencing concrete workability and strength.
• Crushing Value test
This test indicates the aggregate’s resistance to compressive forces, crucial
applications like road construction where aggregates need to withstand heavy
loads.
 Aggregate tests
• Impact Value test
Measures how well an aggregate can withstand sudden impacts,
important for pavement construction.
• Abrasion Test
This test determines the aggregate’s resistance to wear and degradation,
important for durability in applications like road surfaces.
• Soundness Test
This test evaluates the aggregate’s potential to deteriorate when exposed
to weathering cycles like freezing and thawing.
 Aggregate tests
• Petrographic analysis
A microscopic examination of the aggregate particles to identify mineral
composition, texture and potential deleterious properties like cracks or
weathering effects.
• Chemical analysis
In some cases, a chemical analysis may be conducted to determine the
presence of harmful chemical components like sulfates or chlorides that could
affect the aggregate’s durability.
• Flakiness and elongation Test
Evaluates the shape of the aggregate particles, ensuring they are not
exclusively flat or elongated, which could affect concrete strength.
 Cement
Cements are substances, which bind together the particles of
aggregates (sand and gravel) to form a mass of high
compressive strength called concrete. The most common type
of cement in Uganda is Portland Cement.
 Portland Cement
• Ordinary Portland cement (Type I)
A general-purpose cement used in many applications, including concrete
mortar and screed.
• Portland Pozzolana Cement
A blend of Portland cement and pozzolanic materials like fly ash or silica
fume, used for general construction and corrosion resistance.
• Low heat Cement (Type IV)
Portland cement that generates less heat while setting

Group 2 16
 Other types of cement
• Rapid Hardening Cement: A hydraulic cement that quickly gains
strength, used for precast concrete, repair work and pavement
• High alumina cement: Also known as Calcium Aluminate
cement(CAC) or high Alumina Cement(HAC), this cement is strong, sets
quickly and resists aggressive environments.
• Quick setting cement: Cement that hardens(sets) quickly.
• Sulfate resisting cement: Used in concrete that needs to resist sulfur
salts in soil and groundwater.
• Colored cement: Cement that’s mixed with pigments to create different
colours

Group 2 17
 Other types of cement
• White cement: Type 1 white cement is used in architectural concrete
and precast concrete products.
• Type IL: More environmentally friendly than Portland cements.

Group 2 18
 Manufacture of cement
There are many kinds of cement each with closely related processes of
manufacture. Portland cement is the most commonly used type of cement with
two processes of manufacture namely the wet process and dry process;
• Wet Process: In this process, substances containing calcium carbonate such as
chalk or limestone are mixed with substances containing silica and alumina
such as clay or shale, to make cement. The two materials are mixed with water
to form a slurry, which is then pumped into the top of steel rotary kiln while
coal is blown in at the bottom end and is fired. This raises the temperature at
the lower end of the kiln such as the slurry passes down it gives up its
moisture to form a white-hot clinker, which is then transferred to cooler
before being ground. 5% gypsum is added to before grinding to prevent a
flash setting off the cement. The grinding is carried out in ball mill.

Group 2 19
 Manufacture of cement
• Dry Process: The difference with this process and the wet process is the
reduction of the amount of water that has to be driven off in the kiln. In
this process the two materials chalk or limestone and clay or shale are
ground and blended to form a raw meal of low moisture content. The
meal is granulated in rotating pans with a small amount of water before
being passed to a grate for preheating prior to entering the kiln. After
entering the kiln the process is similar to that in the wet process.

Group 2 20
Manufacturing process visualizer

Group 2 21
 Cement Tests
Cement tests determine the quality of cement by assessing its physical, Chemical
and performance characteristics. These tests help ensure that cement meets
standards and performs as intended. Below, we discuss some of the tests carried
out on cement;
• Fineness test: this test is important for evaluating the quality and selecting the
best cement for a specific application. Finer cement particles result in concrete
with earlier compressive strength gain.
1. Ensure the cement sample is free of lumps.
2. Weigh 100 grams of the cement sample.
3. Place the cement in a sieve with a mesh size of 90 microns.
4. Shake the sieve for 15 minutes.
5. Record the weight of the cement that went through the sieve.
6. Calculate the fineness using the formula:
fineness = (W2/W1)*100
Group 2 22
 Compressive strength test
• This test measures how much load a concrete or cement specimen can
withstand before breaking(failing).
How its performed;
1. A specimen is placed in a compression testing machine.
2. A load is gradually applied to the specimen until it breaks.
3. The compressive strength is calculated by dividing the maximum load
by the specimen’s cross-sectional area.
What its used for;
1. To ensure concrete meets the required strength for its intended use.
2. To identify problems in the concrete mix or construction process.
Group 2 23
 Compressive strength test
What the results mean;
1. Compressive strength is reported in units of pound force per square
inch(psi) or Mega Pascals (MPa).
2. Used to design structures that meet their mechanical & durability
requirements.

Group 2 24
Compressive strength Apparatus

Group 2 25
 Consistency test
• A laboratory procedure that determines the amount of water needed to
create a cement paste of a specific consistency. This test is important for
construction because it helps evaluate the cement’s workability and
setting time.
How the test is performed;
1. Mix a sample of dried cement with water to form a paste.
2. Fill a Vicat mold with the paste.
3. Lower a Vicat plunger into the paste until it touches the surface.
4. Release the plunger and note how far it penetrates the paste.

Group 2 26
 Consistency test
What do you make of the results;
• The standard consistency of cement is the amount of water that allows a
10mm diameter plunger to penetrate the paste 5-7mm from the bottom
of the mold.
• This test helps determine the amount of water to mix into cement before
testing its setting time, soundness and compressive strength.

Group 2 27
 Initial and final setting time test
• This test is conducted using a Vicat
apparatus, where a needle is used to
measure the time it takes for a
cement paste to harden enough to
resist penetration to specific depth,
signifying the initial setting time, and
then further hardening to a point
where a circular attachment can no
longer fully penetrate, indicating the
final setting time. This test is crucial
to ensure proper workability and
setting time for concrete
applications.

Group 2 28
 Initial and final setting time test
Procedure.
• Prepare a standard cement paste with a specific water-cement ratio.
• Place the paste in a mold.
• Regularly lower the needle into the paste at set intervals until it can no
longer penetrate beyond a specified depth, marking the initial setting
time.
• Replace the needle with the circular attachment and repeat the process to
determine the setting time.

Group 2 29
 Initial and final setting time test
Interpretation.
• Initial setting time : The time taken for the needle to stop penetrating
beyond a specific depth, indicating the point where the cement starts to
harden and lose workability.
• Final setting time : The time taken for the circular attachment to no
longer fully penetrate the paste, signifying full hardening.
Importance of the test.
Workability; Ensures enough time for mixing, transporting , and placing
concrete before it starts to set.
Strength development; Proper setting time is critical for achieving the
desired strength of the concrete structure.
Group 2 30
 Soundness test
• Measures how much a cement paste expands when placed in water. The
test helps determine if the cement is likely to crack and cause problems
in construction.
How it’s performed;
1. Fill a small mold with cement paste.
2. Place the mold in water.
3. Measure the distance between indicator points.
4. Boil the water for three hours.
5. Remove the mold from the water and let it cool.
6. Measure the distance between the indicator points again.
7. Calculate the difference between the two measurements.
Group 2 31
 Soundness test
• Soundness is an indication of durability. Cement that contains free lime,
magnesia or excess sulfates can expand over time, which can cause
cracks.

Group 2 32
 Water
A proportion of water is always added to concrete mixes to set
up the chemical reaction which will harden the cement and the
remainder is required to give the mix workability and will
evaporate from the mix while it is curing. However an excess of
water will give a porous concrete of reduced durability and
strength.
 Properties of good water for concrete.
Hydrogen potential (pH); ideally between 6 and 8.
Low total dissolved solids (TDS); Minimal amounts of
dissolved minerals like salts and sulfates.
Low suspended solids; Minimal sediment or particles in the
water.
Low organic content; Limited presence of organic matter.
No harmful chemicals; absence of significant amounts of
chlorides, heavy metals (like lead, copper, zinc), or other
chemicals that can compromise concrete strength.
Group 2 34
 Some important Considerations.
Potable water is generally suitable: Water that is safe to
drink is usually acceptable for concrete mixing.
Testing is recommended: Before using water for concrete,
it’s best to test its properties to ensure it meets the required
standards.
Impact on concrete quality: Poor quality water can lead to
reduced strength, increased cracking, and decreased durability
of the concrete.

Group 2 35
 Admixtures
• Admixtures are natural or manufactured chemicals or additives added
during concrete mixing to enhance specific properties of the fresh or
hardened concrete.
Concrete admixtures are classified by their functions and the properties
they lend to concrete. They include but aren’t limited to:
(i). Retarding
(ii). Accelerating
(iii). Water-reducing
(iv). Air entraining and
(v). Super plasticizers
Group 2 36
Retarding Admixtures;
These are used to increase the set time of concrete by slowing
hydration. This is especially useful for counteracting the effects of high
temperatures which cause concrete to harden at a faster rate. Since most
retarders also act as a water reducers, they are often called water-reducing
retarders.
This type admixture works by forming a film around the compounds,
which slows their reaction with water. The thickness of this film
determines the new setting time.
Examples include Inorganic retardants like Unrefined calcium, NH4,
carbohydrates and hydrocarboxylic acids and
Organic Retardants like Zinc, Lead oxides, Phosphates, Magnesium salts
and Borates.
Group 2 37
Accelerating Admixtures:
 These work in the opposite manner; decreasing the set time of
concrete. This helps counteract the effects of cold weather which causes
hardening at a slower rate. The use of these may also allow early removal
of forms and early surface finishing. In certain cases, they may allow for
early load application.
Examples include; triethanolamine (An organic compound), soluble
chlorides, carbonates, silicates.
Calcium Chloride is the most commonly used for concrete structures
that aren’t reinforced since it corrodes steel reinforcements. Also, other
accelerators are being used more today since calcium chloride can
sometimes cause rapid stiffening and an increase in drying shrinkage.

Group 2 38
Water-reducing admixtures:
Can be used to increase set time in hot weather, similar to retarding
admixtures, but their main role is allow for a more fluid mix with a lower
water content. Commonly, 5 to 10% less water may be used in the
mixture when water-reducing admixtures are added.
Active ingredients in 3 categories; salts and modifications of
hydroxylzed carboxylic acids (HC type), Salts and modifications of
lignosulfonic acids (Lignins) and Polymeric materials (PS type).
In addition to improving workability by increasing the fluidity, water-
reducing admixtures also increase the strength of concrete, as well as its
freeze-thaw resistance.

Group 2 39
Air-entraining Admixtures:
These are used to enhance concrete’s durability in relation to freeze-thaw
cycles, especially in cold climates. They disperse small air bubbles in the
mix. These bubbles then become part of the matrix that binds the
aggregate together in the hardened concrete. Air entrained concrete also
happens to be more workable and less susceptible to bleeding and
segregation for green concrete.
Examples include synthetic detergents, salts of petroleum acids, salts of
wood resins and fatty resinous acids and their salts.

Group 2 40
Super plasticizers:
These are also known as high-range water reducers . These admixtures
can be used to reduce the water content of concrete by up to 30%,
creating a highly fluid and workable mix. This flowing mix is used in
heavily reinforced structures and placements in which adequate
consolidation by vibration cannot otherwise be easily achieved.
They into one of four families; Sulfonated melamine formaldehyde
condensates(SMF), Sulfonated naphthalene Formaldehyde
Condensates(SNF), Modified lignosulfonates(MLS), Polycarboxylate
Derivates

Group 2 41
There are several types of admixtures that lie outside the realm of the
main five categories above;
Bonding Admixtures: these facilitate bonding of new concrete with old
concrete e.g. Acrylics, poly vinyl chlorides, acetates etc.
Coloring Agents: either integral or surface applied for aesthetic reasons.
Some have the added effect of accelerated surface hardening.
Water/Damp proofing Admixtures: include soaps, butyl stearate,
mineral oil, asphalt emulsions. They help reduce water penetration into
larger pores of the concrete.
Anti-freeze admixtures: Have a very high amount of an accelerating
agent that produce an extremely fast set time. These are generally used in
commercial applications.

Group 2 42
 Group 2
AINEMIGISHA SOLOMON 23/1/328/D/205
MAHAD KABAKA 23/1/328/D/231
KAZIGO EMMANUEL 23/1/328/D/181
KALYANGO HENRY JAMES 23/1/328/D/080
SSEGANE FAHAD 23/1/328/D/656
MWESIGWA ISAAC 23/1/328/D/218
MPAGI CHRISTOPHER 23/1/328/D/031
MOHAMMED RAIHAAN 23/1/328/D/189
NABWIRE IRENE LETICIA 23/1/328/D/368
OLEKE BRANDON OWINY 23/1/328/D/244

Group 2 43