Pîrî Reis University

Spring 2019

Physics 121Y

Lecture 6
 Programme
Week Chapters Subjects

1-2 Ch.21 Electric Charge & Field E-charge, insulators, conductors, Coulomb’s law, E-field

3 Ch.23 Electric Potential E-potential energy, potential difference, charge distribution

4 C.24 Capacitance, Dielectrics Capacitors, capacitance, E-energy storage, dielectrics

5 C.25 Electric Currents & Res. Batteries, E-current, Ohm’s law, power, current density
EMF, resistors in series/parallel, Kirchhoff’s rules, RC
6 Ch.26 DC Circuits
circ’s
7 Review of Chs. 21-26 .

8 Midterm .

9 Ch.27 Magnetism Magnets, magnetic fields

10 Force on an E-current in a M-field, M-field due to a wire

Ch.28 Sources of
Magnetic Field
11 Ampère’s law, Biot-Savart law

12 C.29 EM Ind. & Faraday’s law Induced EMF, Faraday’s law, moving conductors

C.30 Inductance & AC

13 Inductance, magnetic energy, EM oscillations, AC circuits
Circuits
14 Review of Chs. 27-30 .
Chapter 26
DC Circuits
I. EMF and Terminal Voltage
II. Resistors in Series and in Parallel
III. Kirchhoff’s Rules
IV. Series and Parallel EMFs; Battery Charging
V. RC Circuits Containing Resistor and Capacitor
VI. * Electric Hazards
VII. * Ammeters and Voltmeters

DC circuits are basic elements of all electronic devices, and in this lecture, we
will learn to analyze them.
I. EMF and Terminal Voltage
To have current in an electric circuit, we need a device such as a battery or a
generator that transforms one type of energy (chemical, mechanical, etc.) into
electric energy. Such a device is called a source of electromotive force (or source of
emf in short). The potential difference between the terminals of such a source, when
no current flows through an external circuit is called the emf of the source. Note that
emf is not a force actually, but it is a voltage (potential difference). Its SI unit is not
newton, but volt. We usually use the symbol E for emf.
When a battery is connected to an external circuit, current flows not only outside the
battery, but also inside the battery. A battery itself has some resistance, which is
called its internal resistance and usually denoted by r. A real battery is modelled as a
perfect emf E in series with a resistor r.
Terminal voltage is the potential difference between the two terminals of a battery. If
no current is drawn from the battery, its terminal voltage equals the emf: Vterminal = E .
However, when a current I is drawn from the battery, there is an internal drop I r in
voltage. Thus the terminal voltage (the actual voltage) is
Vterminal = E – I r .
We usually neglect (unless otherwise stated) the battery’s internal resistance r, and
assume that the battery voltage (V ) is its terminal voltage (Vterminal) that equals its emf
(E ).
I. EMF and Terminal Voltage
Example (battery with internal resistance): A 65.0 Ω
resistor is connected to the terminals of a battery whose
emf is 12.0 V and whose internal resistance is 0.500 Ω,
as shown in the figure. Calculate (a) the current I in the
circuit, (b) the terminal voltage Vab of the battery, and (c)
the power dissipated in the resistor R and in the battery’s
internal resistance r.
(a) We model the battery as a perfect emf E in series with a resistor r. Two
terminals of the battery are at points a and b as shown in the figure.

Terminal voltage of the battery: Vab = E – I r

E – Ir = I R → I = E / (R + r)
Ohm’s law for the resistor R: Vab = I R
I = (12.0 V) / [(65.0 Ω) + (0.5 Ω)] = (12.0 V) / (65.5 Ω) = 0.183 A
(b) Vab = E – I r = E – E r / (R + r) = E [1 – r / (R + r)] = E R / (R + r)

= (12.0 V) (65.0 Ω) / (65.5 Ω) = 11.9 V

(c) PR = I 2 R = (0.183 A)2 (65.0 Ω) = 2.18 W

Pr = I 2 r = (0.183 A)2 (0.5 Ω) = 0.02 W

II. Resistors in Series and in Parallel

When N resistors (N > 1) are connected end to end along a single path as shown in
the left figure, they are said to be connected in series. The i th resistor (1 ≤ i ≤ N) of
resistance Ri has a voltage Vi through it. The voltage through the whole circuit is V
(supplied by a battery). If charge dQ passes through one resistor during a time dt,
the same amount of charge must pass through another resistor during this time,
because, electric charge does not accumulate anywhere in the circuit. Therefore, the
current (I = dQ/dt) through all resistors must be the same due to conservation of
electric charge. From Ohm’s law, voltage through the i th resistor is Vi = I Ri , and the
voltage across the whole circuit is the sum of voltages across each resistor: V = ΣiVi .
So, V = I Σi Ri . These N resistors are equivalent to a single one of resistance Req
(see right figure). From Ohm’s law, we have Vi = I Req . Hence, the equivalent
resistance is found as the sum of individual resistances: R = Σ R .
II. Resistors in Series and in Parallel

Another basic way to connect resistors is in parallel, so that the voltage across each
resistor is the same and equal to the common voltage V supplied (see figure). The
i th resistor of resistance Ri has a current Ii through it. Hence from Ohm’s law, we
have Ii = V/Ri . The current I passing through the voltage source is the sum of
currents passing through each resistor: I = Σi Ii . So, I = V Σi Ri–1 . These N resistors
are equivalent to a single one of resistance Req (see right figure). From Ohm’s law,
we have I = V/R . Hence, the equivalent resistance is found as R = [Σ R –1]–1 .
II. Resistors in Series and in Parallel
So, to sum up:

for N resistors connected in series,

for N resistors connected in parallel.

These equations make sense indeed. Recall from Lecture 5 that the resistance of a
wire is written as R = ρL/A.
Resistance is directly proportional to the length L. Connecting resistors in series
means that their lengths are added. And we have Req = Σi Ri for serial connection.

Resistance is inversely proportional with the cross-sectional area. As the area

increases, there appears more paths for the current to flow, and resistance
decreases. That is exactly what happens when resistors are connected in parallel.
The equivalent resistance Req = [Σi Ri–1]–1 is smaller than the smallest resistance in
parallel connection.
II. Resistors in Series and in Parallel
Exercise (headlights): Two lightbulbs of a car are
identical. Which configuration shown in the figure
produces more light, series or parallel?
Greater the power, greater the light produced.
Power transformed (electric to light) in a lightbulb is
P = I V . If a lightbulb has resistance R, then the
equivalent resistances are

So, the parallel configuration has smaller equivalent resistance.

From Ohm’s law, the current I = V/Req is larger for smaller Req .

Therefore, the current through the parallel setup is larger.

For the same voltage V in both setups, the power P = I V is larger for parallel setup.

More light is produced in the parallel configuration.

III. Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchhoff’s rules make it simple to analyze complicated circuits. There are two rules,
and they are simply convenient applications of the laws of conservation of electric
charge and energy.

Kirchhoff’s first rule or junction rule is based on the conservation of electric charge. It
states that at any junction point, the sum of all currents entering the junction must
equal the sum of all currents leaving the junction. That is, what ever charge goes in a
junction must come out of it.

Kirchhoff’s second rule or loop rule is based on the

conservation of energy. It states that the sum of the
changes in potential around any closed loop of a circuit
must be zero. This rule must hold, because electric
force is a conservative one. Therefore the work that the
electric force does on a charge through a closed path
is zero (recall from Physics I).
III. Kirchhoff’s Rules
III. Kirchhoff’s Rules
Example (using Kirchhoff’s rules): Calculate the
currents I1 , I2 , and I3 in the three branches of the
circuit in the figure.
1. Label the currents: The currents are already
labeled and assigned a direction in the figure. If the
actual current is in the opposite direction to the
chosen direction, it will result in a negative value.

2. Identify the unknowns: We have three unknowns (three currents) and therefore
we need three independent equations, which we get from Kirchhoff’s rules.

3. Junction rule: We apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule to the currents at point a, where
I3 enters and I1 and I2 leave:
I3 = I 1 + I2 Equation (i )

At junction d, I3 enters and I1 and I2 leave. Therefore, by applying Kirchhoff’s first rule
to junction d, we get the same Equation (i ).
Now we need two more equations, which we obtain from Kirchhoff’s loop rule.
III. Kirchhoff’s Rules
4. Loop rule: We need to apply the loop rule twice.
First we apply it to the upper loop following ahdcba.
From a to h, we have a voltage Vha = – (I1) (30 Ω).

From h to d, there is no potential difference: Vdh = 0.

From d to c, the potential increases by Vcd = +45 V.

From c to a, we have a voltage Vac = – (I3) (1 Ω + 40 Ω), since we have the same I3
through two resistors in series, whose equivalent resistance equals the sum of two
resistances.
Applying the loop rule for this upper loop, we write Vha + Vac + Vcd + Vdh = 0 , and get:

(– 30 Ω) I1 + (– 41 Ω) I3 + 45 V + 0 = 0 Equation (ii )

For the second loop we can either take the lower loop abcdefga, or the outer loop
ahdefga. Let us do the latter. From the voltages
Vha = – (I1) (30 Ω) , Vdh = 0 , Ved = +(I2) (20 Ω) , Vfe = +(I2) (1 Ω) , Vgf = – 80 V , Vag = 0 ,
we get (– 30 Ω) I1 + (21 Ω) I2 – 80 V = 0 Equation (iii )
III. Kirchhoff’s Rules
I 3 = I1 + I 2 Equation (i )
(– 30 Ω) I1 + 45 V + (– 41 Ω) I3 = 0 Equation (ii )
(– 30 Ω) I1 + (21 Ω) I2 – 80 V = 0 Equation (iii )
5. Solve the equations: Now we have three
equations (i, ii, iii ) and three unknowns (I1, I2, I3) to
solve. Our major work is done. The rest is algebra.
From Eq. (ii ) we have I3 = 1.0976 A – 0.7317 I1 Eq. (*)
From Eq. (iii ) we have I2 = 3.8095 A + 1.4286 I1 Eq. (**)
Substituting these two relations into Eq. (iii ), we get

I1 = I3 – I2 = 1.0976 A – 0.7317 I1 – 3.8095 A – 1.4286 I1 = –2.7119 A – 2.1603 I1

→ 3.1603 I1 = –2.7119 A → I1 = –0.8581 A
Using this value in Eq. (**), we get I2 = 3.8095 A + 1.4286 (–0.8581 A) = 2.5836 A

and in Eq. (*), we get I3 = 1.0976 A – 0.7317 (–0.8581 A) = 1.7255 A

So the answer (up to two significant figures) is: I1 = –0.86 A, I2 = 2.6 A, I3 = 1.7 A

Negative I means that its direction is opposite to the chosen one in the figure.
IV. Series and Parallel EMFs; Battery Charging
When two batteries are connected in series as shown
in the top figure, the total voltage is the algebraic sum
of their respective voltages (Vca = 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3.0 V
for the case shown in the top figure).
If they are connected oppositely as shown in the center
figure, ignoring the voltage drop across the internal
resistances, the net voltage is the difference between
the two voltages (Vca = 20 V – 12 V = 8 V for the case
shown in the center figure). In such a connection, the
high voltage battery charges the low voltage battery (if
it has rechargeable chemistry).
Batteries can also be connected in parallel as shown in
the bottom figure. If their voltages is the same, the net
voltage equals either one of the voltages (12 V for the
case shown in the bottom figure). Such an
arrangement is useful when a large current is needed.
In such a case, each battery would provide half the
current, and thus, they will go dead less quickly. If the
voltages of the parallel connected batteries are not the
same, then we have to apply Kirchhoff’s rules to find
the net voltage.
IV. Series and Parallel EMFs; Battery Charging
Example (jump starting a car): A good car battery is
being used to jump start a car with a weak battery.
The good battery has an emf of E 1 = 12.5 V and
internal resistance r1 = 0.020 Ω. Suppose the weak
battery has an emf of E = 10.1 V and internal
resistance r = 0.10 Ω. Each jumper cable has a
resistance RJ = 0.0026 Ω and are attached as shown
in the figure. Assume the starter motor can be
represented as a resistor RS = 0.15 Ω. Determine the
current through the starter motor (a) if only the weak
battery is connected to it, and (b) if the good battery
is also connected as shown in the figure.
(a) The circuit with only the weak battery and no
jumper cable is simple: an emf of E connected to two
resistors in series, which have an equivalent
resistance Req = r + RS. The current through the
starter motor can be found from Ohm’s law as
I = E / Req = E / [r + RS]
= (10.1 V) / [(0.10 Ω) + (0.15 Ω)] = (10.1 V) / (0.25 Ω) = 40 A
IV. Series and Parallel EMFs; Battery Charging
(b) Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule for the outside loop, we get
EG – I1 (2RJ + r1) – I3 RS = 0 . Eq. (i )

For the lower loop, including the weak battery and the starter:
EW – I3 RS – I2 r = 0 . Eq. (ii )

And finally, the junction rule at point B gives

I1 + I 2 = I3 → I1 = I 3 – I2 . Eq. (iii )
Substitute Eq. (iii ) into Eq. (i ) to obtain
EG – I3 (2RJ + r1 + RS) + I2 (2RJ + r1) = 0 .
Hence, I2 = I3 (2RJ + r1 + RS)/(2RJ + r1) – EG/(2RJ + r1) .

Now, substitute this last relation into Eq. (ii ) to get

EW – I3 RS – I3 r (2RJ + r1 + RS)/(2RJ + r1) + EG r /(2RJ + r1) = 0 .
I3 = [EW + EG r /(2RJ + r1)]/[RS + r (2RJ + r1 + RS)/(2RJ + r1)] .
Plugging in the numbers, we get the answer I3 = 71 A .
This is almost twice the current when only the weak battery feeds the starter motor.
IV. Series and Parallel EMFs; Battery Charging
Exercise: In the previous example, calculate the terminal voltage of the weak battery.
You will find that it is VBA = 10.6 V . Since this value is even larger than the bare emf
of the weak battery (E = 10.1 V), we conclude that the good battery charges the
weak battery in this setup.

Exercise: If the jumper cables of the previous example were

mistakenly connected in reverse, the positive terminal of each
battery would be connected to the negative terminal of the
other battery (see figure). What would be the current I even
before the starter motor is engaged (the switch S in the figure is
open)? Why would this cause the batteries to explode?
V. Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors (RC
Circ’s)
RC circuits are used in almost all electronic device. Let us
now examine the RC circuit shown in Fig. (a). When the
switch S is closed, electrons will begin to move from the
negative terminal of the battery and accumulate at the
upper plate of the capacitor, charging it negatively.
Simultaneously, electrons will leave the lower plate of the
capacitor (charging it positively) and accumulate at the
positive terminal of the battery. Such a current would
continue until the voltage across the capacitor (VC = Q/C)
equals the emf of the battery (E ). Until then, the charge
on the capacitor and the voltage across it increases as
shown in Fig. (b). When the capacitor is fully charged, no
current flows through the circuit. The dependence of
current on time is as shown in Fig. (c).
We can apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to write
E = I R + Q/C .
Here, I R is the voltage across the resistor and Q/C is the
voltage across the capacitor. The current I and the charge
Q accululated on the capacitor are related by I = dQ/dt .
V. Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors (RC
Circ’s)
Thus, we have
Rearranging this equation, we write

We now integrate from t = 0 (when Q = 0) to time t when a

charge Q is on the capacitor:

We take the exponential of both sides of this equation:

or
V. Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors (RC
Circ’s)
We obtain the voltage across the capacitor from VC = Q/C :

And the current is obtained as:

These two functions (of time) are plotted in Figs. (b) and (c).
We see that the maximum voltage across the capacitor is
VC = E and it is reached at very long times, as t → ∞ .
The maximum current through the circuit is I = E /R and it is
at t = 0 (when the capacitor begins to be charged).
V. Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors (RC
Circ’s)
Example (RC circuit, charging a capacitor): The capacitance
in the circuit is C = 0.30 μF , the resistance is R = 20 kΩ, and
the battery emf is E = 12 V . Determine (a) the maximum
charge the capacitor could acquire, (b) the time it takes for
the charge to reach 99% of this value, and (c) the current I at
that moment.
(a) From we see that the maximum charge is Q = CE

Thus, Q = (0.30 μF) (12 V) = 3.6 μC .

(b) In the above equation, we set Q = 0.99 CE :

So, e –t/RC = 1 – 0.99 = 0.01 → t/(RC) = –ln(0.01) = 4.6 → t = 4.6 RC

Hence, t = 4.6 (20 × 103 Ω) (0.30 × 10–6 F) = 28 × 10–3 s = 28 ms

(c) From I = (E /R) e –t/RC, we get I = [(12 V)/(20 kΩ)] × e –4.6

Therefore, I = [0.60 mA] × (0.01) = 0.0000060 A = 6.0 μA
V. Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors (RC
Circ’s)
Exercise (RC circuit, discharging capacitor): Above, we saw
how a capacitor is being charged in a simple RC circuit. The
capacitor can discharge in an even simpler circuit, where there
is no emf source (see figure). Solve Kirchhoff’s loop rule to find
an expression for the time dependence of the voltage on the
capacitor, if it is V0 initially. (Hint: In this case I = – dQ/dt,
because the charge on the capacitor decreases in time.)

VI – VII. * Electric Hazards – Ammeters and Voltmeters

Please read these sections from the textbook.
You may want to open a discussion on them next lecture.
Reference

Physics
for
Scientists & Engineers
with Modern Physics
4th edition
Giancoli